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THE   COMMUNITY 

AND 

THE  CITIZEN  ! 

DUNN 


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UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 


GIFT  OF  THE   PUBLISHER 
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THE   COMMUNITY 


AND 


THE   CITIZEN 


BY 


ARTHUR   WILLIAM    DUNN 

HEAD    OF   THE    DEPARTMENT    OF    HISTORY   AND    CIVICS 

SHORTRIDGE   HIGH    SCHOOL,    INDIANAPOLIS, 

INDIANA 


••• .», ". 


BOSTON,   U.S.A. 

D.    C.    HEATH    &    CO.,    PUBLISHERS 

1908 


4^ 


1^<^ 


Copyright,  1907, 
By  D.  C.   Heath  &  Co. 


*•••*•  *    *  '  I  •!  ■ 


PREFACE 

The  justification  and  aim  of  the  present  book  may  be  stated  in  the 
following  words  from  Professor  Dewey's  "Ethical  Principles  Under- 
lying Education":  '*The  social  work  of  the  school  is  often  limited  to 
training  for  citizenship,  and  citizenship  is  then  interpreted  in  a  narrow 
sense  as  meaning  capacity  to  vote  intelligently,  a  disposition  to  obey 
laws,  etc.  .  .  .  The  child  is  to  be  not  only  a  voter  and  a  subject  of 
law  ;  he  is  also  to  be  a  member  of  a  family.  ...  He  is  to  be  a  worker, 
engaged  in  some  occupation  which  will  be  of  use  to  society  and  which 
will  maintain  his  own  independence  and  self-respect.  He  is  to  be  a 
member  of  some  particular  neighborhood  and  community,  and  must 
contribute  to  the  decencies  and  graces  of  civilization  wherever  he  is.  .  .  . 
To  suppose  .  .  .  that  a  good  citizen  is  anything  more  than  a  thoroughly 
efficient  and  serviceable  member  of  society  ...  is  a  cramped  supersti- 
tion which  it  is  hoped  may  soon  disappear  from  educational  discussion. 
.  .  .  Training  for  citizenship  is  formal  and  nominal  unless  it  develops 
the  power  of  observation,  analysis,  and  inference  with  respect  to  what 
makes  up  a  social  situation  and  the  agencies  through  which  it  is 
modified." 

The  book  is  a  departure  from  the  traditional  methods  of  presenting 
the  subject  of  civics  to  young  people.  It  has  not  been  customary  to 
differentiate  between  civics  and  civil  government.  The  writer  believes 
that  such  a  differentiation  may  be  made,  and  that,  moreover,  anything 
like  a  scientific  analysis  of  the  machinery  and  powers  of  government 
can  profitably  be  undertaken  not  earlier  than  the  last  years  of  the  high 
school,  and  then  it  may  best  be  presented  in  close  association  with  the 
work  in  American  history.  On  the  other  hand,  he  believes  that  many 
elementary  ideas  regarding  community  life,  the  meaning  of  citizenship, 
the  relations  between  the  citizen  and  the  community,  and  the  services 
performed  for  the  citizen  by  the  government,  not  only  can,  but  should, 
be  presented  to  the  pupil  at  an  earlier  period  in  his  education. 

The  function  of  the  public  school  is  to  produce  a  good  type  of  citizen- 
ship.    There  is  no  other  sanction  for  the  existence  of  the  public  school. 

iii 

229967 


iv  PREFACE 

The  entire  course  of  study  and  the  whole  round  of  school  life  should 
be  directed  to  this  end.  Unfortunately,  the  aim  of  education  in  the 
public  school  is  too  often  considered  from  a  purely  individualistic  point 
of  view,  as  a  means  of  aiding  the  individual  to  get  a  living.  It  is  rare 
that  we  find  any  definite  instruction  given  to  arouse  the  pupiPs  con- 
sciousness of  the  meaning  of  community  life  and  of  his  relations  to  it. 
The  study  of  civil  government  in  its  usual  form  fails  to  accomplish  this 
end. 

"Observation,  analysis,  and  inference"  are  the  essentials  of  the 
pedagogical  method  adopted  in  this  book.  The  aim  has  constantly 
been  to  make  a  vivid  impression  upon  the  consciousness  of  the  pupil. 
The  author  has  been  more  concerned  about  the  interest  that  the  pupil 
shall  develop  in  the  life  of  the  community  and  in  his  relation  to  that 
life,  than  about  the  amount  of  systematic  knowledge  that  he  shall  gain 
regarding  the  forms  and  working  of  government.  The  desideratum 
has  been  to  stimulate  a  questioning  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  pupil, 
and  to  leave  him  with  an  eager  desire  to  know  more. 

At  the  same  time,  the  author  has  not  neglected  government.  Gov- 
ernment is,  indeed,  introduced  in  every  chapter  of  the  book  in  its  proper 
relations  to  the  phase  of  civic  life  under  discussion,  and  the  last  few 
chapters  are  devoted  to  the  governmental  machinery.  The  endeavor 
has  constantly  been  to  present  government  in  its  proper  perspective. 
It  must  not  be  supposed,  from  the  use  of  the  word  "  community,"  th^t 
the  book  deals  with  local  government  alone.  Local,  state,  and  national 
organization  are  constantly  emphasized  throughout  the  text  in  such  a 
way  that  not  only  is  the  relation  of  the  citizen  to  each  of  them  made 
vivid,  but  also  the  relations  of  the  three  kinds  of  government  to  each 
other  are  brought  out  with  distinctness. 

A  feature  of  the  book  is  the  use  made  of  local  history.  It  is  believed 
that  a  contribution  is  made  toward  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  how 
to  employ  local  history  effectively  in  the  schools.  Few  local  communi- 
ties have  a  history  that  touches  the  main  stream  of  national  history  in 
an  intimate  way,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  use  of  local  development 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  United  States.  Still,  every  com- 
munity has  a  history  that  may  be  made  instructive.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  method  of  handling  the  subject  in  this  text  may  be  useful,  both  in 
stimulating  interest  in  the  subject  itself  and  as  a  means  of  illustrating 
the  growth  of  community  life  and  the  relation  between  the  community 
and  the  individual. 


PREFACE  V 

Although  conscious  of  imperfections  in  the  book,  the  author  presents 
it  with  some  degree  of  confidence  because  of  the  test  to  which  it  has 
already  been  put,  in  a  preliminary  form,  by  a  year's  use  in  the  schools 
of  Indianapolis.  He  has  had  the  benefit  of  the  experience  and  criticism 
of  thirty  or  forty  practical  teachers  during  this  time.  He  takes  this 
opportunity  to  thank  these  teachers  for  their  searching  but  sympathetic 
criticism  and  suggestion.  The  author  is  indebted,  also,  to  Professor 
Henry  E.  Bourne,  of  Western  Reserve  University,  and  to  Dr.  Henry 
Suzzallo,  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  for  most  helpful  advice. 
For  the  suggestion  of  the  method  of  approaching  the  subject,  acknowl- 
edgment is  due  to  Professors  Albion  W.  Small  and  George  E.  Vincent, 
of  the  University  of  Chicago. 

ARTHUR  W.   DUNN. 

Indianapolis,  April  15,  1907. 


C^ 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE   TEACHER 

For  the  successful  use  of  a  text-book,  it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher 
get  into  the  spirit  of  the  book.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  familiarity 
with  the  book  itself.  If  it  has  a  distinctive  spirit  expressing  itself 
through  a  definite  and  consistent  plan,  this  spirit  should  readily  be 
imparted  to  the  reader.  It  is  hoped  that  this  may  be  true  of  the  present 
text. 

"The  Community  and  the  Citizen"  is,  however,  prepared  on  a  plan 
so  different  from  what  the  teacher  may  be  expecting  in  a  text  on  civics 
that  an  introductory  word  emphasizing  the  central  idea  of  the  book 
and  offering  a  few  suggestions  relative  to  method  may  be  helpful.  In 
this  connection,  the  attention  of  the  teacher  is  called  to  the  preface. 
No  better  preparation  can  be  made  for  the  use  of  the  text  in  the  spirit 
in  which  it  is  intended  than  by  a  careful  reading  of  Professor  Dewey's 
"  Ethical  Principles  Underlying  Education,"  quoted  in  the  preface,  and 
"  The  School  and  Society  "  by  the  same  author. 

Certain  well-known  principles  of  educational  psychology  are  indis- 
pensable in  the  teaching  of  civics.  The  first  of  these  is  that  the  pupil's 
inieiest  must,  first  of  all,  be  secured.  It  is  far  better  to  stimulate  inter- 
est and  to  impart  very  little  detailed  information  than  to  fill  the  mind 
with  more  or  less  well-understood  facts  at  the  expense  of  interest. 
Interest,  once  killed,  is  hard  to  regain  ;  while  with  the  interest  thoroughly 
kindled,  the  facts  will  easily  follow.  Furthermore,  it  is  the  individual's 
interest,  and  not  his  knowledge,  that  leads  to  action.  The  right  kind 
of  interest  behind  a  very  few  facts  will  lead  to  good  citizenship,  while 
any  number  of  facts  without  the  interest  will  fail  to  do  so. 

It  is  also  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  the  surest  way  to 
kindle  and  maintain  the  child's  interest  is  to  build  on  his  own  experi- 
ence,  passing  constantly  from  the  facts  of  his  experience  to  related  facts 
just  beyond  his  experience,  and  back  again  to  his  own  experience. 
This  method  has  been  adhered  to,  as  far  as  possible,  throughout  the 
book.  Many  of  the  topics  appended  to  the  chapters  are  intended  to 
bring  the  pupil  back  from  the  consideration  of  principles  to  the  appli- 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHER  vii 

cation  of  these  principles  to  the  simple  facts  of  his  own  experience. 
The  first  five  chapters  of  the  book  are  intended  to  fix  the  pupil's  atten- 
tion on  the  simple  facts  that  lie  at  the  foundation  of  civic  life,  by 
approaching  these  facts  through  the  interests  or  desires  which  the 
child  himself  feels  in  common  with  all  other  people  (chapter  IV). 

In  pursuance  of  this  method,  the  spirit  of  community  life  should  be 
stimulated  in  the  class  itself  in  every  possible  way.  The  pupil  should 
be  led  to  consider  himself  not  merely  as  an  individual  who  is  trying  to 
acquire  a  certain  number  of  facts,  but  as  a  member  of  a  class-com- 
munity to  whose  progress  he  is  expected  to  contribute.  The  class 
makes  an  excellent  illustration  of  community  life.  Here  are  a  number 
of  people,  with  differing  interests,  associated  together  for  a  common 
purpose.  The  welfare  of  each  member  depends  upon  all;  each  is 
responsible  for  the  welfare  of  all.  The  class-community  is  subject  to 
laws,  or  rules,  in  order  that  the  best  interests  of  all  may  be  served. 
These  rules  should  not  be  arbitrarily  imposed,  but  the  class  should  be 
induced  to  formulate  their  own  rules  of  conduct  from  their  own  recog- 
nition of  the  needs  of  the  class.  It  is  not  meant  that  the  class-community 
should  be  taken  up  for  formal  study,  but  that  it  be  referred  to  illustra- 
tively throughout  the  study.  The  whole  school  is  a  larger  type  of  com- 
munity composed  of  the  several  class-communities.  Its  interests  are 
broader,  its  organization  more  complete.  It  illustrates,  to  some  extent, 
the  federal  idea. 

Pursuing  still  further  the  method  of  building  on  the  pupil's  own 
experience,  he  should  be  led  constantly  to  apply  the  ideas  of  each 
chapter  of  the  book  to  his  own  community  —  neighborhood,  city,  county, 
state,  nation,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  suggested  topics  at  the  ends 
of  the  chapters  are  intended  to  aid  in  accomplishing  this ;  but  the 
application  should  be  made  all  along  in  connection  with  the  text  itself. 
For  this  reason  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  pupil  never  fails 
to  recognize  the  relation  between  the  topics  and  the  text.  It  is  often 
well  to  assign  the  topics  in  connection  with  the  reading  of  the  para- 
graphs which  are  related  to  them.  Do  not  allow  the  pupil  to  feel  that 
he  is  studying  one  thing  in  the  text  and  another  unrelated  thing  in  the 
topics.  The  pupil  should  be  kept  as  far  away  as  possible  from  the  i(^ea 
that  he  is  studying  a  book.  The  real  object  of  his  study  is  the  com- 
munity in  which  he  lives ;  the  text  is  a  guide  to  the  facts  of  his  own 
community  life  and  an  interpretation  of  them. 

Right  along  this  line,  and  for  the  same  purpose,  the  teacher  is  urged 


viii  SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHER 

to  make  use  of  local  history.  The  meaning  of  community  life  will  be 
much  clearer  if  its  origin  and  gradual  development  are  seen. 

The  topics  at  the  ends  of  the  chapters  are  intended  as  aids  in  the 
study  of  the  real  community  in  which  the  child  lives.  If  any  of 
them  prove  otherwise,  they  should  be  omitted  or  modified,  or  others 
should  be  substituted  for  them.  Some  topics  may  be  used  for  general 
class  work,  others  for  individual  reports.  They  cannot  all  be  used 
effectively  in  every  community.  The  teacher  should  fit  the  topics  to 
the  needs  of  the"  class  and  to  the  conditions  of  the  particular  com- 
munity. Do  not  expect  the  same  results  from  all  pupils,  but  lead  each 
to  expect  to  make  his  contribution  to  the  progress  of  the  class. 

If  some  object  to  certain  topics  on  the  ground  that  material  for  their 
answers  is  not  available,  it  may  be  said:  (i)  If  a  topic  is  manifestly 
impracticable  for  a  given  class  or  community,  do  not  waste  time  over 
it.  There  are  plenty  of  other  topics  that  will  do.  (2)  The  fact  that 
a  topic  cannot  be  answered  completely  or  correctly  does  not  necessari^ly 
invalidate  it.  In  real  life  many  of  our  questions  remain  wholly  or  in 
part  unanswered.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  correct  answer  should 
not  be  sought ;  but  the  chief  aim  is  to  arouse  a  questioning  attitude  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil.  To  set  the  question  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
is  the  important  thing.  It  does  not  matter  so  much,  after  all,  whether 
the  child  can  describe  the  details  of  the  water  system  or  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  school  board,  but  it  is  important  that  the  coming  citizen 
should  have  a  consciousness  of  the  magnitude  of  the  work,  the  com- 
munity does  for  him  to  supply  him  with  pure  water  and  with  an 
education. 

It  is  not  intended  that  pupils  in  this  grade  of  work  shall  do  a  great 
deal  of  reading.  It  is  preferable,  where  possible,  to  get  the  desired 
information  at  first  hand.  At  the  same  time,  some  reading  from  books 
and  current  literature  will  be  necessary.  The  daily  papers  and  the 
current  magazines  are  full  of  illustrative  material.  The  references  at 
the  ends  of  the  chapters  will  often  be  helpful  to  the  pupils.  They  are 
intended  fully  as  much,  however,  as  aids  to  the  teacher.  Hart's  "  Actual 
Government "  (Longmans)  and  Forman's  ^^  Advanced  Civics "  (The 
Century  Company)  are  referred  to  throughout  the  text-book,  and  will 
prove  excellent  for  the  reference  table. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

1.  The  Beginning  of  a  Community         .        .        .        .        i 

II.  What  is  a  Community? 7 

III.  The  Site  of  the  Community lo 

IV.  What  the  People  in  Communities  are  Seeking      .       15 
V.  The  Family •        .20 

VI.     Some  Services  rendered  to  the  Community  by  the 

Family 26 

VII.     The  Making  of  Americans 34 

VIII      How  the  Relations  between  the  People  and  the 

Land  are  made  Permanent  and  Definite    .  43 

IX.     How  THE  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to  satisfy 

his  Desire  for  Health   .        .        .        .        .        -54 
X.     How  the  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to  protect 

HIS  Life  and  Property 67 

XI.  The   Relation  between   the  Community   and   the 

Citizen  in  Business  Life 82 

XII.  How    THE    Government    aids   the    Citizen    in    his 

Business  Life 92 

XIII.  Waste  and  Saving 98 

XIV.  How  THE  Community  aids  the  Citizen   in  Trans- 

portation AND  Communication        ....     103 
XV.     How  THE  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to  satisfy 

HIS  Desire  for  Knowledge 118 

XVI.     How  THE  Community  aids   the  Citizen  to  satisfy 

HIS  Desire  for  Beautiful  Surroundings      .        .     132 
ix 


»  CDNTENTS 


CHAPTER 

XVII.    How  THE  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to  satisfy 

HIS  Religious  Desire 

XVIII .     What  the  Community  does  for  those  who  can- 
not OR   WILL   NOT  CONTRIBUTE    TO   ITS   PROGRESS 

XIX.     How  THE  Citizens  of  a  Community  govern  Them- 
selves        

XX.     Some   Defects  in  the   Self-government   of   our 

Communities 

XXI.     The  Government  of  Rural  Communities:   Town- 
ship AND  County     .         .        .        . 
XXII.    The  Government  of  the  City  .... 

XXIII.  The  Government  of  the  State       .... 

XXIV.  The  Government  of  the  Nation    .... 
XXV.     How  THE  Expenses  of  Government  are  Met 

Appendix 

I.     The  Constitution  of  the  United  States    .         .         .         . 
II.     Table  showing  the  Number  of  Homes  owned  and  the 

Number  rented  in  Cities 

III.     Immigration  Tables 


149 

153 
161 

178 

189 
198 
208 
218 
228 

239 

256 
258 


THE   COMMUNITY 

AND 

THE   CITIZEN 


THE^COMMUNITY  AND   THE 
CITIZEN 

CHAPTER   I 
THE   BEGINNING   OF   A   COMMUNITY 

About  seventy  years  ago  a  company  of  people  in  New- 
York  thought  of  founding  a  settlement  in  the  far  West. 
Their  purpose  was  to  build  a  college  for  the  ^^^   ^^^ 
education    of    Christian    ministers.      Their  first  settlement 
step  toward   actual   settlement  was  to   appoint  ^^®  ^^^^ 
an  exploring  committee  to  search  for  a  suitable  site,  and  a 
committee  to  find  families  who  were  willing  to  go. 

The  exploring  committee  was  given  instructions  to  ex- 
amine the  following  points : 

1.  What  is  the  quality  of  the  water  in  wells 

,  .  .  1  J  What  the 

and  sprmgs  ?  ^^p^^^.^^ 

2.  Do  the  streams  in  the  neighborhood  rise  committee 
in,  or  pass  through,  swamps?     Or  do  they  rise  was  to  look 
from  springs  ?     Are  they  rapid  or  sluggish  ? 

3.  Are  there  marshes  in  the  vicinity  ? 

4.  Is  the  land  level  or  rolling  ? 

5.  What  is  the  quality  and  depth  of  the  soil } 

6.  Is  there  a  convenient  and  abundant  supply  of  timber 
and  fuel  ? 

7.  Is  there  water  power?     If  not,  is  there  coal? 

*8.    Are   there  navigable  streams,  or   canals  and  roads 
already  built  or  proposed  ? 


2  TH£::(X>JVIMUNrTO..^NIJ  THE  CITIZEN 

After  thf^6,  ^orttfis'  sear*chJa;Suit^ble  location  was  found 
in  a  beautifulVolling  prairie' country,  on  the  watershed  be- 
Thesite  tween  two  large  rivers,  neither  of  which  was 
selected  more  than  fifty  miles  distant.  The  prairie  land 
was  very  fertile.  Near  at  hand  was  a  large  tract  of  wood- 
land containing  oak,  black  walnut,  and  other  fine  trees, 
which  afforded  shelter  during  the  first  hard  winter,  before 
substantial  houses  could  be  built  upon  the  open  prairie, 
and  supplied  building  material  and  fuel.  There  were 
numerous  springs  and  streams  which  furnished  water  and 
good  drainage.  Since  the  settlement  has  become  a  city, 
one  of  these  streams  has  become  a  menace  to  health  be- 
cause of  the  refuse  drained  into  it.  Near  by  an  abun- 
dance of  coal  was  found,  and  in  the  course  of  time  there 
was  discovered  a  great  deposit  of  shale,  good  for  the  mak- 
ing of  paving  brick,  which  is  one  of  the  chief  industries  of 
the  city  at  the  present  time.  The  settlement  was  made 
before  the  day  of  railroads,  and  there  were  few  wagon  roads 
and  no  canals  in  the  region.  But  the  location  was  such 
that  it  was  felt  that  roads  were  certain  to  center  there 
in  the  near  future. 

The  committee  to  find  families  was  also  successful. 
Thirty  families,  comprising  one  hundred  and  seventy 
The  families  Persons,  were  found  who  would  go  to  the  new 
for  the  settlement     the     first    year.      The    settlement 

settlement  founded  by  these  families  still  takes  pride  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  a  city  of  homes. 

The  purpose  of  those  who  planned  the  settlement,  as 
we  have  seen,  was  to  found  a  college  to  educate  Christian 
Common  ministers.  The  famiHes  chosen  to  make  up  the 
interests  of  settlement  were  selected,  therefore,  with  a  view 
the  settlers  ^^  getting  people  who  would  take  an  interest  in 
this  purpose.     The  community  was  noted  for  its  zeal  for 


THE   BEGINNING   OF  A  COMMUNITY  3 

education  and  religion.  But  this  was  not  all  that  con- 
cerned them.  If  you  will  examine  the  instructions  given 
to  the  exploring  committee,  you  will  see  that  care  was  to 
be  taken  to  find  a  site  favorable  to  health  ;  it  must  also  be 
favorable  to  the  production  of  wealth  ;  and  there  must  be 
easy  means  of  coinmitnicatio7i  among  themselves  and  with 
the  outside  world.  Which  of  the  instructions  refer  to 
these  different  things  ? 

The  little  colony  not  only  planned  to  build  a  church,  a 
college,  and  a  common  school ;  they  also  built  houses 
for  shelter,  they  began  to  cultivate  the  soil,  they  put  up  a 
sawmill  and  a  gristmill.  Many  of  the  necessary  occupa- 
tions, such  as  making  clothing  and  shoes,  repairing  tools, 
and  making  furniture,  were  at  first  carried  on  in  each 
household,  but  soon  carpenters,  a  blacksmith,  a  shoemaker, 
and  other  tradesmen  settled  in  the  community.  For  social 
life,  the  people  had  their  singing  schools  and  quilting 
parties. 

The  colonists  had  acquired  a  township  of  land.  Three 
sections  were  reserved  for  the  site  of  the  village  and  the 
college.  The  village  was  laid  out  in  lots  to  be  r^^^  people 
sold  to  those  who  wished  to  build  homes  and  united  with 
places  of  business.  The  college  land  was  ^^^^^^^ 
fenced  in,  and  lots  were  reserved  for  the  church,  an 
academy,  and  a  common  school.  Outside  of  the  village 
the  land  was  sold  in  half-sections  and  quarter-sections  for 
farming.  These  farms  were  fenced  in  and  improved  by 
cultivation  and  by  the  erection  of  permanent  buildings. 
The  more  the  settlers  improved  the  land,  and  the  more 
they  invested  in  their  homes  and  business,  the  more  cer- 
tainty was  there  that  the  community  would  be  permanent 
and  prosperous. 

The  early  life  of  this  little  community  was  very  simple. 


4  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Each  man,  with  his  neighbors'  help,  chopped  and  hauled 
The  life  of  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  which  to  build  his  cabin.  In  the 
the  early  edge  of  the  grove  there  were  **  a  dozen  or  two 
commum  y  j^^  cabins,  some  built  without  a  nail  or  a  pane 
of  glass ;  with  the  spaces  between  the  logs  chinked  with 
mud  ;  with  outside  chimneys  made  of  clay  and  sticks ;  with 
boxes,  barrels,  and  short  logs  for  chairs,  a  large  box  for 
the  table,  and  a  one-post  bedstead^  for  an  honored  guest." 
Each  man  was  his  own  mechanic,  some  were  their  own 
cobblers,  and  the  wives  were  the  tailors  and  dressmakers. 
A  family  in  "  average  circumstances "  is  described  as 
having  "enough  money  to  pay  taxes  and  postage."  Serv- 
ants were  rare  and  were  on  equal  terms  with  the  family. 
The  cabins  were  adorned  by  such  simple  means  as  sticking 
four  balls  of  clay  upon  the  corners  of  the  chimneys.  It  is 
said  that  it  was  strange  "  how  quickly,  under  the  good 
taste  and  deft  fingers  of  the  ladies  of  the  colony,  these 
cabins  took  on  a  cozy  air  and  an  appearance  of  beauty  and 
refinement."  Books  and  papers  were  few,  and  were 
handed  about  from  house  to  house.  Money  was  scarce,  so 
that  the  exchange  of  goods  took  place  by  barter.  Farm 
produce  had  to  be  hauled  in  wagons  straight  across  the 
prairie  to  the  nearest  large  town,  fifty  miles  away.  When 
any  great  undertaking  was  proposed,  like  the  building  of  the 
church,  all  the  men  of  the  community  united  in  the  work. 
They  chopped  and  hauled  the  logs  from  the  grove,  they 
hewed  out  the  timbers,  they  put  the  frame  together,  and 
raised  the  building. 

The  people  in  this  little  community,  selected  as  they 
had  been  with  great  care  by  a  committee,  were  at  first 
remarkably    harmonious.     They  were  of  one  nationality  ; 

'  A  one-post  bedstead  was  built  in  the  corner  of  the  room,  the  two  walls 
serving  as  two  sides  of  the  bed. 


THE   BEGINNING   OF   A   COMMUNITY  5 

they  were  of  Puritan  principles.  They  all  rallied  around 
the  idea  of  the  Christian  college.  If  any  differ-  Qo^ernment 
ences  arose,  they  were  at  first  settled  by  the  of  the 
church  organization.  But  with  the  coming  of  *^®°*™"^^*y 
more  settlers,  and  the  development  of  new  interests,  it 
became  necessary  to  form  a  government. 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  this  community,  which  has 
developed  until  to-day  it  is  a  thriving  city  with  handsome 
homes,  busy  streets,  noisy  factories,  churches,  schools,  and 
libraries.  It  is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  is  thus 
brought  into  the  Ufe  of  the  world  outside.  It  is  a  center 
of  culture  and  refinement,  and  a  pleasant  place  in  which 
to  live. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

This  chapter  is  the  true  story  of  the  founding  of  a  community  in 
Illinois.  Every  community,  including  your  own,  has  had  a  beginning 
more  or  less  like  that  of  the  one  described  here.  In  reading  this 
chapter,  think  whether  it  would  fit  your  own  community  —  in  what  points 
it  is  like  it,  and  in  what  points  it  differs. 

1 .  Can  you  find  out  how  the  site  of  your  community  happened  to  be 
selected  ? 

2.  Take  the  list  of  instructions  given  to  the  exploring  committee 
mentioned  on  page  i,  and  answer  the  questions  there  asked  with 
reference  to  your  own  community. 

3.  From  what  localities  did  the  early  settlers  in  your  own  com- 
munity come?  What  led  them  to  found  a  new  community?  How  did 
they  make  the  journey  from  their  old  homes  to  the  new  settlement? 

4.  Find  true  stories  of  pioneer  life  in  your  own  community,  or  in 
your  own  state. 

5.  When  Virginia  was  colonized,  did  the  character  of  the  site  influ- 
ence the  life  of  the  colony?  Did  the  character  of  the  people  do  so? 
Answer  these  questions  with  reference  to  the  other  colonies. 

6.  What  were  the  purposes  that  led  the  colonists  to  settle  in  New 
England?  Compare  with  the  purposes  of  the  settlers  described  in 
this  chapter. 

7.  Describe  the  life  of  the  people  in  Massachusetts  during  the 
first  few   years  of  the  colony.     Compare  with    the  hfe  of  the  settle- 


6  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

ment  described  on  page  4  of  this  chapter,  and  with  the  pioneer  life 
of  your  own  community. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Where  possible,  the  pupil  should  gather  information  from  old 
settlers  of  his  acquaintance. 

2.  Where  available,  local  histories  should  be  made  use  of.  County 
histories,  reports  of  old  settlers'  meetings,  etc.,  are  useful. 

3.  Use  any  stories  of  pioneer  life,  like  that  of  Lincoln's  boyhood, 
to  supplement  local  history.  McMurry's  "Pioneer  History  Stories" 
(Macmillan)  is  good. 

4.  For  questions  5-7,  the  ordinary  school  histories  will  usually 
suffice  where  other  books  on  colonial  life  are  not  available. 

5.  There  is  an  excellent  series  of  books  on  colonial  life,  suitable 
for  pupils,  by  Alice  Morse  Earle.  These  will  be  useful  throughout  the 
study.  Some  of  the  titles  are  :  "  Colonial  Dames  and  Good  Wives  " ; 
"  Stage  Coach  and  Tavern  Days  "  ;  "  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days  " ; 
**  Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days." 


CHAPTER   II 
WHAT   IS   A  COMMUNITY? 

The  story  of  the  founding  of  the  colony  in  the  West 
illustrates  certain  things  that  we  should  know  about  com- 
munities. Each  one  of  us  is  a  member  of  a  community. 
We  wish  to  know  just  what  our  community  is,  and  how  it 
grew.  We  wish  especially  to  know  what  it  does  for  us, 
and  what  we  owe  to  it. 

The  community  whose   beginnings  we   noticed  in  the 
last   chapter  consisted  of    a  group  of  people  who  settled 
together    in    a    single   locality,    and    who   were   Dgg^j. 
bound  to  each  other  by  common  interests.    They  tion  of  a 
were  also  subject  to  common  laws.    This  may  be   ^^^^^^^y 
taken  as  a  definition  of  any  community. 

Communities  may  be  large  or  small ;  that  is,  the  people 
may  be  many  or  few,  and  the  locality  in  which  they  live  may 
include  a  large  area  or  a  small  one.     A  group 
of  neighboring  farmers  with  their  families  may   small  com- 
constitute  a  community.     In  this  case  the  area   "^"^^*^®s 
occupied  may  be  large,  while  the  people  are  few  in  number. 
Or  the  community  may  be  a  city,  with  a  dense  population 
in  a  comparatively  small  area.     Each  state  in  our  Union  is 
a  community,  and  so  is  our  nation,  because  each  is  com- 
posed of  a  group  of  people  occupying  a  common  territory 
and    governed    by  common    interests  and    common    laws. 
The  nation  is  composed  of  state  communities,  and  each 
state  is  made  up  of  many  city  and  rural  communities. 

You  may  live  in  a  small  city  which  is  a  community  in 

7 


8  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

itself,  with  its  group  of  people,  its  boundaries,  its  common 
Communi-  interests,  and  its  common  laws.  A  few  miles 
ties  unite       outside  of  vour  city  is  a  community  of  farmers, 

into  larger  •'  -^  •' 

ones  whose  houses  are  far  apart,  but  who  have  common 

interests,  such  as  keeping  up  the  roads  and  the  bridges  in 
their  neighborhood.  The  farmers  bring  their  produce  to 
the  city  for  the  use  of  the  people  there,  and  in  turn  depend 
upon  the  city  for  many  of  their  necessities  and  pleasures. 
The  country  and  the  city  communities  thus  have  certain 
interests  in  common,  and  their  dealings  with  each  other 
are  regulated  by  common  laws.  You  are,  therefore,  a  mem- 
ber not  only  of  your  city  community,  but  also  of  a  larger 
community  including  the  farmers.  You  belong  also  to  the 
community  of  the  whole  state,  and  to  a  still  larger  one 
including  the  nation. 

No  community  ever  began  its  existence  fully  formed, 
but  each  has  grown  from  small  beginnings.  It  is  like  the 
Communi-  growth  of  a  plant  from  the  seed.  You  may  have 
ties  grow  gggj^  ^  tangled  mass  of  vines  growing  from  a 
beginnings  common  root,  with  the  branches  and  tendrils  so 
interwoven  that  it  is  difficult  to  trace  one  of  them  back  to 
the  main  trunk.  So  in  a  great  community  like  a  city,  or 
like  our  nation,  we  find  the  structure  and  the  organization 
so  complicated  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  understand  them. 
It  is  easier  to  take  a  community  in  its  earlier  and  simpler 
stages,  like  that  of  the  last  chapter,  for  a  beginning  of  our 
study,  and  then  to  trace  its  growth  into  the  more  compli- 
cated forms. 

Being  a  member  of  a  community  means  that  each  one 
Member-  ^^  ^^  takes  part  in,  and  contributes  to,  its  life, 
ship  in  a  The  heart  and  the  arm  are  members  of  the  human 
community  ^^^^  ^j^^^  receive  life  from  the  body,  and  con- 
tribute to  its  life.    In  a  similar  way  your  life  is  closely  inter- 


WHAT   IS   A   COMMUNITY  ?  9 

woven  with  the  Hfe  of  the  community  in  which  you  Hve.  You 
can  imagine  yourself  shut  off  from  mankind,  Hke  Robinson 
Crusoe,  and  Hving ;  but  what  a  narrow  life  it  would  be! 
The  best  of  your  life  comes  from  participation  in  the  life 
of  your  community.  When  we  speak  of  citizenship,  we 
usually  mean  this  membership  in  the  commu- 
nity, with  its  giving  to,  and  receiving  from,  the  ^  ^^^"^  *^ 
community's  life.  Citizenship  carries  with  it  certain  privi- 
leges and  certain  duties. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Talk  over  in  class  the  four  essentials  of  a  community  —  the  group 
of  people,  the  site,  the  common  interests,  and  the  common  laws.-  Apply 
these  essentials  to  your  own  community. 

2.  Is  your  class  a  community?  Explain,  What  are  its  common 
interests?     Are  its  laws  written  or  unwritten? 

3.  Show  how  the  different  classes  in  your  school  are  bound  together 
by  interests  common  to  the  whole  school.  Compare  this  union  of  classes 
into  a  school  with  the  union  of  states  into  a  nation. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  things  in  which  your  family  and  your 
nearest  neighbors  have  a  common  interest  because  of  living  close 
together? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  things  in  which  the  people  of  a  city  and  the 
neighboring  farmers  have  a  common  interest  ? 

6.  Name  some  things  in  which  all  the  cities  of  a  state  have  a  com- 
mon interest.  What  are  some  things  in  which  the  whole  nation  has  a 
common  interest? 

7.  Show  how  an  injury  or  a  benefit  to  one  person  may  be  an  injury 
or  a  benefit  to  the  whole  community  of  which  the  person  is  a  member. 
Show  how  an  iniury  or  a  benefit  to  a  community  will  injure  or  benefit 
the  individual  members  of  the  community. 

8.  Can  you  be  a  member  of  your  class  without  doing  it  either  good 
or  harm?  If  a  member  of  a  community  contributes  nothing  to  its  wel- 
fare, can  he  avoid  being  harmful  to  it?     Explain. 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  a  citizen  receives  from  his 
community? 

10.  Think  of  some  ways  in  which  a  citizen  may  contribute  to  the 
welfare  of  his  community. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE   SITE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY 

In  beginning  our  study  we  must  remember  that  the 
people  and  the  locality  both  contribute  something  to  make 
our  community  what  it  is. 

"1  The  geographical  features  of  the  land  enter  into  the 
life  of  the  community  in  many  wa.y^J^ln  its  relation 
Importance  to  the  land,  we  may  compare  the  growth  of  a 
of  the  land  community  to  the  growth  of  a  plant.  The 
plant  derives  its  support  from  the  soil.  Some  kinds  of 
plants  flourish  in  one  kind  of  soil,  other  kinds  in  other 
soils.  In  the  case  of  all  plants,  their  size  and  fruitfulness 
depend  not  merely  on  the  kind  of  seed  sown,  but  also  on 
the  character  of  the  soil.  It  is  the  same  with  communi- 
ties. Whether  a  community  shall  live  or  die  may  depend 
entirely  on  the  character  of  its  site. 

The  importance  of  the  character  of  the  land  is  seen 
clearly  in  the  account  of  the  founding  of  the  community 
in  the  first  chapter.  The  site  of  a  community  is  not 
always  selected  so  carefully  as  in  that  case ;  but  the  in- 
fluence of  the  site  is  always  important. 

Natural  geographical  conditions  usually  determine 
where  large  cities  shall  grow.  Nature  seems  to  have 
In  deter-  planned  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River  as  the 
where^cities  ^^^^  of  the  greatest  city  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
shau  grow  A  good  harbor,  like  that  of  Boston  or  San  Fran- 
cisco ;  the  junction  of  two  navigable  rivers,  as  at  Pittsburg 
or   St.  Louis ;   the   falls  of   a   river,  checking  navigation 

lO 


THE   SITE  OF  THE   COMMUNITY  II 

and  affording  water  power,  as  at  Minneapolis  or  Louisville ; 
the  head  of  a  river  estuary,  as  at  Quebec  or  Philadelphia ; 
the  center  of  a  rich  region  where  roads  naturally  cross, 
as  at  IndianapoHs  —  all  these  are  conditions  favoring,  if 
not  determining,  the  growth  of  large  communities. 

The  health  of  a  community  depends  in  many  ways  on 
the  character  of  the  land.  Low,  flat  regions  are  Hkely  to 
be  unhealthful.  Sluggish  streams  and  lakes  in  relation 
that  tend  to  become  stagnant  breed  disease.  *<>  health 
The  supply  of  drinking  water  is  an  important  matter,  and 
often  depends  on  the  character  of  the  underlying  rocks 
into  which  wells  are  dug.  These  geographical  influences 
become  of  the  greatest  importance  in  cities  where  the 
population  is  dense,  for  the  artificial  drainage  may  be 
good  or  bad  according  to  the  character  of  the  natural 
drainage ;  and  the  water  supply  is  in  much  greater  danger 
of  pollution  in  the  city  than  in  smaller  communities.  A 
stream  which  is  naturally  clear  and  sparkling  may  be- 
come, in  the  heart  of  a  city,  a  foul  breeding  place  of  disease. 

Climate  is  also  one  of  the  conditions  that  influence  com- 
munity life.     A  little  thought  will  show  how  climate  may 
determine  the  mode  of  life — the  character  of   influence  of 
the  houses,  the  form  of  clothing,  and  even  the   ^^^^^^^ 
nature  of  the  sports  and  amusements  of  the  people. 

The  influence  of  natural  resources  on  the  forms  of  in- 
dustry and  on  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  communities 
is   so   clear  that   it   is   not  necessary  to   dwell  influence 
upon  it.     Can  you  not  think  of  some  cities  in  of  natural 
the  United  States  that  are  celebrated  for  Indus-  "^°""®^ 
tries  which  depend  on  the  presence  of  important  natural 
resources  ? 

In  many  rural  communities  the  farmers  are  almost  com- 
pletely isolated  from  one  another  during  a  part  of  the  year 


12  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

because  the  roads  are  impassable,  owing  to  a  soil  which 
forms  a  deep  mud,  or  to  the  flat  and  swampy  character  of 
Influence  ^^^  \aud.  This  Condition  interferes  with  the 
of  surface  social,  business,  and  intellectual  life  of  the  farm- 
ers,  and  influences  their  relations  with  one 
another  in  many  ways.  An  unusually  hilly  site  may 
affect  the  social  and  the  business  life  of  a  city.  A  river 
and  its  branches  may  divide  a  city  into  parts  more 
or  less  distinct  and  with  differing  characteristics.  Such 
a  city  is  Chicago,  with  its  North,  West,  and  South 
Sides. 

Virginia  is  a  good  example  of  how  the  land  may  shape 
the  character  and  the  history  of  a  large  community.  The 
Influence  of  development  of  this  colony  and  state  was  de- 
geography  termined  to  a  remarkable  extent  by  conditions 
develop-  ^^  climate,  soil,  and  surface  which  encouraged 
mentof  the  Cultivation  of  the  tobacco  plant.  This  in- 
irginia  dustry  required  large  plantations,  which  were  dis- 
tributed along  the  shores  of  the  navigable  rivers,  of  which 
there  were  many.  These  rivers  were  large  enough  to  per- 
mit the  ocean  vessels  of  that  time  to  pass  some  distance  up 
their  courses.  Therefore  each  planter  had  his  wharf,  at 
which  he  loaded  his  tobacco  for  shipment  and  received 
manufactured  goods  from  abroad.  These  conditions  dis- 
couraged the  growth  of  cities,  and  the  population  remained 
almost  wholly  rural.  An  abundance  of  cheap  labor  was 
necessary,  and  hence  slavery  gained  a  foothold.  The 
scattering  of  the  population  over  wide  areas  made  it  dif- 
ficult for  the  people  to  come  together  at  a  common  meet- 
ing place,  so  that  the  township  organization  with  its 
government  by  town-m,eeting,  such  as  was  found  in  New 
England,  was  impracticable,  and  the  county  system  of 
government  developed  instead  (see  chapter  XXI). 


THE   SITE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY  13 

The  character  of  our  national  community  depends  in  a 
large  measure  on  the  character  of  the  land.  Rich  resources 
have  made  our  land  a  place  of  opportunity  to  all. 
East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  at  least,  the  ©four 
country  is  well  fitted  geographically  to  be  the  "^*^°^ 
home  of  a  singte  great  nation  rather  than  of  many  small 
ones.  The  whole  region  from  the  Rockies  to  the  Alle- 
ghanies  is  closely  bound  together  by  river  systems.  The 
navigable  rivers  in  early  days,  and  the  conditions  which 
have  made  the  building  of  railroads  easy  in  later  times, 
have  hastened  the  settlement  of  the  country.  Our  situation 
between  the  two  great  oceans  has  protected  us  from  foreign 
aggression,  and  it  has  also  given  us  a  great  advantage  in 
the  commerce  of  the  world.  Our  geographical  conditions 
have  been  favorable  to  the  development  of  a  great 
nation,  united  under  common  interests  and  common  laws. 
Yet  we  have  had  many  geographical  difficulties  to  over- 
come. "For  the  creation  of  the  nation  the  conquest 
of  her  proper  territory  from  Nature  was  first  necessary. 
...  A  bold  race  has  derived  inspiration  from  the  size, 
the  difficulty,  the  danger  of  the  task." 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  a.  If  you  live  on  a  farm  or  are  well  acquainted  with  one,  make  a 
sketch  map  of  it,  showing  position  of  highlands,  lowlands,  marshes, 
timber,  streams  ;  also,  houses,  barns,  roads,  bridges. 

b.  Did  the  features  of  the  land  determine  the  location  of  the  build- 
ings? Of  the  roads  and  bridges?  The  drainage  of  the  farm?  The 
kinds  of  crops  raised  on  different  parts  of  the  farm? 

c.  Has  the  character  of  the  land  influenced  the  life  of  the  farmer's 
family  in  any  way?  (Bear  in  mind  climate,  the  change  of  seasons, 
the  presence  of  woods,  good  or  bad  roads  ;  and  think  of  their  effects 
upon  going  to  school  or  church,  amusements,  social  life.) 

2.  Can  you  discover  any  advantages  in  the  site  of  the  town  in  which 
you  live,  or  in  the  one  nearest  to  your  home,  that  determined  its  location? 
How? 


14  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE  CITIZEN 

3.  Make  a  map  of  the  site  of  your  town  or  city  showing  the  natural 
drainage ;  i.e.  the  streams  into  which  the  land  is  drained.  Is  the 
drainage  good  or  bad?     Is  it  equally  good  in  all  parts  of  the  city? 

4.  What  are  the  natural  resources  of  the  region  in  which  your  com- 
munity is  situated?  How  have  they  influenced  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity? 

5.  Are  the  geographical  conditions  in  your  community  favorable  to 
good  roads  in  the  country  districts?  Explain  fully.  How  does  this 
influence  the  life  of  the  towns?     Of  the  farmers? 

6.  Is  you?  community  divided  into  districts  or  regions  by  any  natural 
features  (hills,  streams,  etc.)?  Can  you  show  any  results  of  this  fact 
upon  the  life  of  the  community? 

7.  What  geographical  conditions  affect  your  supply  of  drinking 
water? 

8.  Is  your  state  noted  for  any  particular  industries?  If  so,  what 
geographical  conditions  have  helped  to  make  it  so? 

9.  What  geographical  difficulties  had  to  be  overcome  in  the  develop- 
ment of  your  state?  How  has  the  government  helped  to  overcome 
geographical  difficulties  ? 

REFERENCES 

The  teacher  should  see  that  the  work  in  this  chapter  is  correlated 
with  the  pupiPs  work  in  geography. 


Jff€A60iSk|iN1820' 


The  Site  of  Chicago. 

Compare  this  scene  with  that  on  page  iii. 


CHAPTER  IV 
WHAT  THE    PEOPLE   IN   COMMUNITIES   ARE   SEEKING 

Man  has  been  called  a  bundle  of  wants,  and  these  wants 
are  constantly  leading  him  to  act  in  such  a  way  as  to 
satisfy  them. 

First  of  all,  men  desire  life  and  health.     They  will  or- 
dinarily give  up  anything  in  order  to  preserve  their  lives. 
Good  health  is  one  of  the  most  priceless    pos-  ^^^      . 
sessions.     A  perfectly  sound  and  healthy  body  for  life  and 
is  one  of  the  greatest    joys  a   man  can    have,  ^®^^*^ 
and  without  it  he  is  unable  to  satisfy  his  other  desires  to 
the  fullest   extent.     Recall  the  provisions    made   for   the 
protection  of  life  and  health   by   the  colonists  mentioned 
in  the  first  chapter. 

Another  thing  that  people  want  is  to  own  something. 
Boys  and  girls  like  to  have  things  that  they  can  call  their 
own.  The  things  that  men  seek  to  own — houses,  xhe  desire 
cattle,  books,  pictures,  and  the  like  —  constitute  for  wealth 
wealth.  The  desire  for  wealth  is  a  very  strong  one, 
stronger  in  some  persons  than  in  others.  What  a  man 
owns  is  valuable  because  of  what  he  can  do  with  it.  It 
helps  him  to  sustain  and  protect  life.  It  enables  him  to 
enjoy  comforts  and  luxuries  that  he  could  not  otherwise 
have.  It  makes  it  possible  for  him  to  educate  himself, 
to  satisfy  his  desire  for  art,  to  travel,  and  to  enter  more 
fully  into  social  life.  Men  engage  in  farming,  in  manufac- 
turing, in  buying  and  selling,  and  many  other  forms  of 
business  to  satisfy  their  desire  for  wealth. 

IS 


l6  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Men  also  want  knowledge.  That  is  why  children  ask  so 
many  questions,  and  why  boys  like  to  take  things  to  pieces 
^^   ,  to  see  how  they  are  made.     It  is  this  desire  that 

The  de-  ^ 

sire  for  led   Nanscn  to  the  arctic   regions,  and  Living- 

knowledge     g^^^g  ^Q  ^j^g  j^g^j.^  q£  Africa.     It    lies   at   the 

foundation  of  all  science.  It  was  one  of  the  foremost 
desires  that  led  to  the  founding  of  the  settlement  in  the 
West  (chapter  I). 

Men  also  take  pleasure  in  things  that  are  beautiful. 
This  may  lead  to  travel,  to  the  collection  of  pictures,  to  the 
erection  of  beautiful  buildings,  and  to  the  maintenance  of 
The  desire  well-kept  streets  and  lawns.  There  is  a  great 
for  beauty  variety  of  activities  for  the  satisfaction  of  the 
desire  for  beautiful  things.  How  did  this  desire  show 
itself  in  the  community  mentioned  in  the  first  chapter.? 

No  race  or  tribe  of  men  has  ever  been  known  that  did 
not  have  some  form  of  religion.  The  religious  desire  is 
The  desire  characteristic  of  men.  In  every  community 
for  right-  there  are  certain  things  that  men  do  to  satisfy  it. 
eousness  j^  ^^^  ^^  ^^  Sacrificing  of  animals,  as  among 
the  ancient  Hebrews.  It  may  be  the  throwing  of  chil- 
dren to  the  crocodiles,  as  in  India.  It  may  be  the  build- 
ing of  beautiful  temples,  as  in  ancient  Greece.  It  may 
be  waging  a  great  war,  like  the  Crusades ;  or  it  may  be 
the  founding  of  a  hospital  or  some  other  charitable  institu- 
tion. The  desire  for  the  spread  of  religion  was  the  dhief 
motive  of  the  settlers  mentioned  in  the  first  chapter. 

Man  desires  companionship.  He  has  been  called  a  social 
animal.  He  engages  in  many  forms  of  activity  to  gratify 
The  desire  his  desire  to  associate  with  other  men.  How 
for  com-       £^jj     could  this  desire  be  satisfied  in  the  little 

panion-  ■' 

ship  community  founded  in  the  West .'' 

Many  of  the  things  that  men  do  are  the  result  of  several 


WHAT   THE  PEOPLE   ARE   SEEKING  \y 

of  these  desires  working  together.     A  man's  desires  for 
knowledge,  for  beautiful  scenery,  and  for  health  ^  ^- . 
may   combine   to    lead   him   to    the   mountains,   tionsof 
When  Columbus  sailed  on  his  voyage  of  dis-  *^®^^"^ 
covery,  he  was  led  by  his  desire  for  knowledge,  his  desire 
for  wealth,  and  his  desire  to  extend  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity.    Sometimes  one  desire  may  seem  to  ob- 

1  1      •        •        1        1 .  r         r  "^®  desire 

scure  every  other  desu'e  m  the  life  of  a  person,   sometimes 
The  love  of  wealth  may  take  such  possession  of  a  shuts  out  all 

.  ,  1.        others 

man  that  he  becomes  a  miser,  or  perhaps  dis- 
honest.    It  has  sometimes  happened  that  a   man  has  be- 
come so  enthusiastic  in  the   pursuit  of  art,  or  of  science, 
that  he  has  sacrificed  his  health,  or  even  Hfe  itself,  as  in 
the  case  of  Andre,  who  attempted  to  reach  the  north  pole 
in  a  balloon.     History  tells  us  of  men  who  were  so  devoted 
to  what  they  beheved  to  be  their  rehgious  duty  that  they 
became  hermits,  shutting  themselves  away  from  all  com- 
panionship, denying  themselves  riches,  mutilating  jj^g  ^gii_ 
and  starving  the  body,  and  even  suffering  death,   rounded 
BuTln  every  normal  person  there  are  found  all 
the  desires  named,  and  tJie  zv  ell -rounded  life  is  made  up  of 
activities  to  satisfy  all  of  these  desires  in  due  proportion. 

Two  persons  may  have  the  same  desires,  but  may  at- 
tempt to  satisfy  them  in  different  ways.       The  Flathead 
Indians  bind  boards  upoitthe  foreheads  of  their  Different 
children,  flattening:  them,  because  thev  think  the  ^*y^  °^ 

^  satisfying 

result  IS  beautiful.  A  certain  people  blacken  the  same 
their  teeth  and  scorn  Europeans  who  have  <^®^^^® 
"  white  teeth  like  dogs."  So  among  us  there  are  people 
who  seem  to  take  delight  in  things  that  are  repugnant  to 
others.  The  miser  and  the  spendthrift  both  have  wrong 
ideas  of  the  use  of  wealth.  One  man's  desire  for  com- 
panionship may  lead  him  into  profitable  associations  with 


1 8  THE  COMMUNITY  AND  THE  CITIZEN 

others.  The  same  desire  in  another  may  lead  him  to 
waste  his  time  in  the  evil  influences  of  the  saloon. 

Where  there  are  so  many  desires  and  so  many  ways  of 
satisfying  them  it  is  not  strange  that  the  activities  of  peo- 
Conflicts  of  P^^  sometimes  conflict.  The  robber,  in  his  pur- 
desires  and  suit  of  wealth,  conflicts  with  the  desires  of 
others.  One  man  may  erect  a  cheap  and  ugly 
building  that  is  a  nuisance  in  the  neighborhood.  An  em- 
ployer may  maintain  a  poorly  ventilated  factory  or  store 
that  endangers  the  health  of  those  who  work  for  him. 
A  crowd  of  young  people  in  their  love  of  sport  and  com- 
panionship may  interfere  with  the  peaceful  pursuits  and 
the  comfort  of  others.  That  community  is  best  to  live'  in, 
in  which  each  citizen  not  only  has  the  greatest  opportunity 
to  satisfy  his  desires  in  life,  but  also  recognizes  the  fact 
that  all  other  citizens  have  their  desires,  and  an  equal 
right  to  satisfy  them. 

In  the  course  of  time  men,  living  together  in  communi- 
ties, have  developed  various  means  to  secure  harmony. 
Means  t  ^^^  ^^  prevent  the  rights  of  one  from  being 
secure  interfered    with   by    others.      Three    means    to 

harmony       secure  these  results  are  : 

1.  The  school.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  train  children  for 
citizenship  ;  that  is,  for  membership  in  the  community. 
(See  chapter  XV.) 

2.  The  church.  It  works  through  the  reHgious  desires  of 
men.  Its  service  in  helping  men  to  live  harmoniously  to- 
gether may  be  expressed  by  its  teaching,  "  Do  unto  others 
as  ye  would  be  done  by." 

3.  Government.  It  establishes  and  enforces  laws  for  the 
common  good,  which  all  should  wilHngly  observe.  It  is 
not  something  placed  over  us  from  without,  to  tyrannize 
over  us,  and  to  be  feared  and  antagonized.     It  is  a  friend 


WHAT   THE  PEOPLE   ARE   SEEKING  19 

of  our  own  making,  and  should  be  cherished  and  sup- 
ported by  every  citizen  to  the  fullest  extent  possible.  The 
beneficent  purpose  of  government  is  stated  in  the  preamble 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  which  reads : 

IVe,  the  people  of  the  United  States^  in  order  to  form  a 
more  perfect  unions  establish  justice^  insure  domestic  tran- 
quillity, provide  for  the  common  defense,  promote  the  general 
welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  aiid 
our  posterity,  do  ordain  atid  establish  this  Constitution  for 
the  Ufiited  States  of  America. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  things  are  done  in  your  own  home  for  the  purpose  of  satis- 
fying the  desires  mentioned  in  this  chapter? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  things,  outside  of  your  home,  that  the 
people  of  your  community  do  to  satisfy  these  desires? 

3.  What  desires  are  gratified  by  a  person  who  does  the  following 
things:  paints  his  house;  attends  a  concert;  visits  a  sick  friend;  buys 
a  book ;  makes  a  garden ;  keeps  a  dog ;  takes  out  a  fire-insurance 
policy ;  keeps  a  store ;  goes  to  church ;  attends  a  lecture  ? 

4.  Show  how  a  person's  desire  for  companionship  may  conflict  with 
his  desire  for  knowledge ;  how  his  desire  for  wealth  may  conflict  with 
his  desire  for  health  or  for  companionship. 

5.  Give  illustrations  of  how  some  persons,  in  satisfying  their  desires, 
interfere  with  the  attempts  of  others  to  satisfy  theirs. 

6.  Does  community  life  make  it  easier,  or  more  difficult,  for  men  to 
satisfy  their  desire  for  life  ;  for  health  ;  for  wealth  ;  for  knowledge  ;  for 
beauty;  for  religion?     Explain. 

7.  Show  how,  in  the  school,  the  pupil  who  "  does  as  he  pleases  " 
interferes  with  the  liberty  of  others.  Is  it  right  that  his  own  liberty 
should  then  be  restricted?  Why?  Is  liberty  the  right  to  "do  as  one 
pleases  "  ? 

8.  Study  together  in  class  the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and,  if  possible,  a  part  of  the  bill  of  rights  of 
your  state  constitution.  Find  how  many  of  the  desires  mentioned  in 
this  chapter  are  there  provided  for. 

9-  Mention  one  way  in  which  government  helps  you  to  satisfy  each 
of  the  desires  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   FAMILY 

It  was  pointed  out  in  the  first  chapter  that  the  commun- 
ity in  the  West  was  settled  by  families,  and  grew  up  to 
_,,    ,     .,       be  ^  city  of  koines.    There  are  communities  in 

The  family  -^      -^ 

in  the  our  land  in  which  a  large  part  of  the  popula- 

community  ^-^^^  j^  without  homes  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word.  In  the  far  West  there  are  mining  towns, 
and  in  the  North  lumber  camps,  composed  almost  en- 
tirely of  men  without  families.  In  such  communities 
life  is  rough,  some  of  the  best  features  of  civilized  life  are 
lacking,  and  the  community  is  likely  to  be  lawless.  In 
cities  there  are  thousands  of  people  who  live  in  dwelling 
places  with  very  little  that  we  usually  associate  with 
home  life.  Many,  indeed,  have  not  even  regular  dwelling 
places,  as  in  the  case  of  tramps.  There  are  thousands  of 
unfortunate,  homeless  children  adrift  in  our  great  cities.  It 
is  largely  in  the  drifting,  homeless  population  that  the  dis- 
orderly and  criminal  classes  are  found.  The  family  and  the 
home  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  a  community,  first 
because  of  what  they  do  for  the  individual  citizen  in  help- 
ing him  to  satisfy  the  desires  of  life,  and  second  because  of 
the  services  they  render  to  the  community  as  a  whole. 

What  the  family  does  for  its  members  can  best  be  under- 
stood if  we  first  study  the  Hfe  of  a  pioneer  family,  cast 
The  pioneer  almost  entirely  upon  its  own  resources  in  a  new 
famUy  country.     Tempted  by  stories  of  the  rich  lands  in 

the  West  and  the  greater  opportunities  of  gaining  a  liveli- 

20 


THE  FAMILY  21 

hood  and  accumulating  wealth,  this  family  had  packed  its 
household  goods  and,  with  a  team  of  horses  and  a  wagon,  had 
undertaken  the  journey  of  six  weeks  or  more  into  the  wil- 
derness. It  selected  a  spot  in  an  open  space  in  the  forest,  not 
far  from  the  banks  of  a  stream,  where  the  conditions  of  the 
land  gave  promise  of  making  a  new  home  safe,  pleasant, 
and  productive  of  good  results.  The  family  then  was  miles 
from  any  other  human  abode.  There  were  no  roads  con- 
necting it  with  civiHzation  except  the  rough  "  trace  "  by 
which  it  found  its  way  into  the  forest.  The  family  was 
face  to  face  with  the  great  wilderness,  whose  conquest 
was  for  the  present  its  chief  task. 

The  husband  and  father  immediately  began  to  make  a 
home.  With  the  help  of  his  son,  he  cut  down  trees  from 
the  forest  and  built  a  log  house.  He  became  Providing  a 
woodcutter,  carpenter,  and  builder.  They  made  shelter 
some  simple  furniture,  and  built  a  great  fireplace  of  clay 
and  sticks,  with  an  oven.  Fuel  was  found  in  abundance  in 
the  forest. 

The  open   space  in   the  forest  around   the   house  was 
enlarged   by   clearing   away    the    trees,    the    ground    was 
plowed,  and  grain  and  vegetables  were  planted.   Providing 
The  grain  was  cut  and  threshed  by  hand,  and   ^°°^ 
ground  into  meal  in  a  home-made  stone  mill.     For  fresh 
meat  they  had  to  depend  chiefly  upon  game  from  the  forest. 
Some  necessities,  such  as  salt  and  powder,  and  a  few  lux- 
uries, such   as  coffee,  had  to  be  brought  with   Exchange 
great  difficulty  from  the  nearest  settlement  many  of  goods 
miles  away.     In  exchange  for  these  things  they  gave  their 
surplus  farm  products  and  a  few  furs  from  animals  trapped 
during  the  winter.     Money  was  almost  never  seen  in  this 
Western  country. 

The  man  built  a  forge.     Under  the  stress  of  necessity, 


22  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE  CITIZEN 

and  aided  by  some  little  experience  gained  in  the  East,  he 
Occupations  was  able  to  repair  his  tools,  and  even  to  make 
and  the*  ^  ^^^  ones,  to  shoe  his  horses,  and  to  do  many 
mother  other  things  necessary  on  the  farm.     He  experi- 

mented in  making  moccasins  and  even  shoes.  He  began 
the  raising  of  sheep  and  cultivated  flax.  A  spinning  v^heel 
and  a  hand  loom  were  set  up  in  the  house,  and  coarse  but 
serviceable  clothing  was  made  by  the  mother's  hand. 

Little  was  to  be  feared,  in  those  early  days,  from  thieves 
and  marauders,  although  there  were  occasional  rumors 
Protection  of  threatened  Indian  attacks.  Against  possible 
against         dangers  of  this  kind  the  father  was  a  watchful 

violence  and  ® 

disease  protector.     Another  enemy  more  difflcult  to  cope 

with  was  sickness,  due  to  the  presence  of  a  swamp  near  at 
hand.  The  medicine  chest,  supplemented  by  roots  and 
herbs  from  the  forest,  was  a  valuable  part  of  the  family 
equipment.  The  mother  proved  herself  a  sympathetic  and 
resourceful  physician  and  nurse.  She  also  saw  to  it  that 
the  cause  of  disease  was  reduced  as  much  as  possible  by 
keeping  the  premises  clean. 

The  education  of  the  children  had  to  be  looked  after. 
The  son  was  taught  the  duties  of  the  farm  and  the  use  of 
Education  tools  of  all  kinds.  He  became  a  skillful  woods- 
and  art  man.     The  older  girl  learned  the  duties  of  the 

household,  how  to  spin  and  weave,  and  many  other  things 
to  fit  her  for  the  life  she  had  to  lead.  The  mother  taught 
the  youngest  child  to  read,  and  instructed  all  in  ideas  of 
right  living.  She  planted  a  little  flower  garden  in  the 
dooryard,  and  trained  vines  over  the  house.  With  the 
crude  materials  at  hand,  she  used  her  taste  to  the  utmost 
in  beautifying  the  children's  clothes. 

The  parents  were  religious  people  in  accordance  with 
their  early  training.     The  family  Bible  occupied  a  promi- 


THE   FAMILY  23 

nent  place  in  the  household,  and  from   it   every   day  the 
father  read  to  the  family  group.     There  was  no 
church  for  miles  around. 

There  was  little  companionship  for  the  members  of  this 
family  outside  of  the  family  group;  but  within  the  group 
there  was  the  closest  association.    The  children 

Social  life 

interested  themselves  in  the  work  of  the  parents, 
and  the  parents  entered  sympathetically  into  the  pastimes 
of  the  children.  They  read  and  sang  together.  The  chil- 
dren had  their  sports  in  fields  and  woods,  appropriate 
to  the  seasons.  For  want  of  other  companions  they  made 
pets  of  all  the  domestic  animals.  An  occasional  traveler 
was  welcomed  in  the  home  with  the  freest  hospitality. 

The  occupations  of  the  day  were  carried  on  in  regular 
order ;  each  had  his  special  duties  to  perform  at  certain 
times.  The  children  rendered  obedience  to  their  oovem- 
parents.  The  father  was  the  recognized  head  of  ^^^^ 
the  family.  His  word  was  law.  Yet  he  constantly  had  the 
best  interests  of  the  family  at  heart,  and  was  kind  and 
thoughtful  with  all  his  sternness. 

Such  was  the  life  of  the  pioneer  family.  It  was  crude 
and  imperfect ;  but  you  see  that  all  the  kinds  of  desires  that 
men  have  were  provided  for  more  or  less  completely  within 
the  family  itself.  It  looked  after  the  protection  of  life 
and  health,  the  production  of  wealth,  the  education,  the 
religious  training,  and  the  social  life  of  its  members. 

In  the  course  of  time  other  families  came  into  the  neigh- 
borhood. Then  an  organization  into  a  larger  ^^^  family 
community  began.  The  settlers  rendered  aid  to  relieved  by 
each  other  in  building  houses  and  gathering  crops,  zation^of^a 
Many  of  the  occupations  formerly  carried  on  larger 
in  the  family  were  now  transferred  to  members  *^°°^™"^^  y 
of    the    community    who    made    these   occupations    their 


24  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

business.  A  school  was  organized  to  provide  a  better 
education  than  could  be  offered  in  the  home,  and  a 
church  was  built  at  the  crossroads.  A  government  also 
was  organized. 

Although,  as  a  community  grows,  various  means  arise 
to  help  the  family  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  its  members, 
The  resDon-  ^^^  family  must  always  bear  an  important  part  of 
sibUity  of  the  responsibiHty  for  the  welfare  of  its  members, 
the  family  ^^  matter  how  good  the  doctors,  the  health  of 
the  people  in  any  community  depends  more  on  the  family 
than  on  anything  else.  No  matter  how  efficient  the  schools, 
a  great  responsibility  rests  on  the  family  for  the  proper 
education  of  the  children.  No  matter  how  many  social 
organizations  there  may  be  in  the  community,  the  social 
life  of  the  home  is  the  most  important  of  all  and  the  most 
far-reaching  in  its  results.  No  matter  how  excellent  the 
government  of  a  community  may  be,  it  can  have  Httle 
good  result  if  the  government  in  the  home  is  lacking. 
The  surest  way  to  secure  good  government  in  the  com- 
munity is  through  careful  government  in  the  homes  that 
make  up  the  community.  No  matter  hoiv  large  the  com- 
munity, or  hoiv  completely  it  is  organized,  the  family  re- 
mains one  of  the  most  important  means  to  provide  for  the 
wants  of  the  citizens. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  family  life  in  the  pioneer  days  of 
your  own  community  :  the  kind  of  dwellings  ;  where  the  food  supply  came 
from  ;  how  health  was  cared  for ;  the  occupations  in  the  household ; 
what  was  done  to  beautify  the  home ;  the  social  amusements. 

2.  Show  to  what  extent  the  needs  of  a  farmer's  family  in  your  own 
neighborhood  are  satisfied  by  its  own  efforts. 

3.  Observe  whether  your  own  family  is  chiefly  dependent  on  itself 
for  its  needs,  or  depends  on  arrangements  supplied  by  the  commu- 
nity. 


THE   FAMILY  2^ 

4.  Compare  the  advantages  of  the  average  country  family  with  those 
of  the  average  city  family,  with  respect  to  satisfying  the  desires  of  life. 
Or,  debate  the  question  :  Home  life  in  the  country  has  greater  advan- 
tages than  home  life  in  the  city. 

5.  Study  the  way  in  which  the  average  family  governs  itself.  Why 
is  this  government  necessary? 

6.  Are  there  in  your  community  many  people  without  homes,  as 
explained  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter? 

REFERENCES 

The  books  by  Alice  Morse  Earle,  mentioned  in  the  first  chapter,  will 
afford  good  material  for  this  chapter  also. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SOME   SERVICES    RENDERED   TO   THE   COMMUNITY 
BY   THE   FAMILY 

"  No  nation  can  be  destroyed  while  it  possesses  a  good  home  life.'" 

The  family  not  only  does  much  to  provide  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  individual  citizen,  but  it  also  performs  certain 
valuable  services  for  the  community  as  a  whole. 

In  the  first  place,  the  family  has  been  called  "  a  school 
of  all  the  virtues"  that  go  to  make  good  citizenship.  It 
The  family  is  a  school  in  which  not  only  the  children,  but 
^h^Tf^^  also  the  parents,  are  trained  for  citizenship, 
citizens  It  has  been  said  that  if  a  man  is  a  good  hus- 
band, a  good  father,  a  good  son,  or  a  good  brother, 
the  probability  is  that  he  will  also  be  a  good  citizen  in  the 
community.  And  we  must  not  forget  the  wives,  mothers, 
daughters,  and  sisters.  The  quality  of  the  citizenship 
of  the  women  of  a  community  is  perhaps  shown  more 
in  their  family  life  than  that  of  the  men,  because  such 
a  large  part  of  their  lives  is  spent  in  the  family  and  the 
household,  and  also  because  their  influence  there  is  so 
great  in  molding  the  character  of  the  men.  In  the  family 
are  developed  thoughtfulness  for  others,  the  spirit  of  self- 
sacrifice,  loyalty  to  the  group  of  which  the  individual  is  a 
member,  respect  for  the  opinions  of  those  of  long  ex- 
perience, obedience  to  the  head  of  the  family  and  to  the 
rules  which  have  been  established  for  the  welfare  of  all. 
If  these  and  other  quaUties  of  good  citizenship  are   not 

26 


SERVICES   RENDERED   BY   THE   FAMILY 


27 


cultivated  there,  the  family  is  not  in  a  healthy  condition, 
and  is  not  doing  its  full  service  to  the  community. 

There  is  no  other  kind  of  property  that  gives  such  satis- 
faction to  the  owner  as  a  home.  Men  usually  look  forward 
with  eagerness  to  the  time  when  they  can  own  xhe  owning 
their  homes,  and  take  great  pride  in  that  owner-  ^^  *  ^^^^  . 
ship  when  it  is  acquired.  Many  famiHes  Hve  in  homes 
which  they  do  not  themselves  own ;  they  rent  from  others. 
When  that  is 
the  case,  there 
is  lacking  one 
of  the  strongest 
influences  that 
make  the  home 
life  complete. 
The  ownership 
of  a  home  adds 
another  bond  of 
union  among  the 
members  of  the  family  through  the  common  interest  which 
it  affords.  A  man  has  a  greater  interest  in  improving 
and  beautifying  a  home  that  he  owns  than  one  that  he 
rents  from  another. 

A  family  that  owns  its  home  will  usually  take  a  greater 
interest  in  the  community  in  which  it  lives  than  the  family 
that  owns  no  home.  It  feels  a  sense  of  proprie-  Creates 
torship  in  a  part  of  the  community  land.  The  ^^^^^^ 
value  of  a  home  will  increase  in  proportion  to  community 
the  prosperity  of  the  community  as  a  whole.  Its  owner 
will  therefore  be  inclined  to  do  all  he  can  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  the  community  for  the  sake  of  his  family.  A 
community  that  is  made  up  largely  of  homes  owned  by 
their  occupants  is  likely  to  be  prosperous  on  this  account, 


^^^^^^^H 

A  Modest  Home. 


28 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


Wretched  Dwelling. 


and  its  citizens  will  be  loyal  to  it.  This  is  why  the  commu- 
nity mentioned  in  the  first  chapter  has  reason  to  boast  that 
it  is  a  city  of  homes. 

In  large  cities,  where  people  are  crowded  together  in  a 
comparatively  small  area,  it  is  difficult  for  all  to  get  pos- 
session of  a  piece  of 
ground-  suitable  for  a 
home.  The  land,  being 
in  great  demand,  be- 
comes very  valuable,  so 
that  many  famihes  are 
unable  to  buy  it,  or  even 
to  pay  the  necessary 
price  for  the  use  of  it. 
The  result  is  that  such  families  are  driven  to  make  their 
homes  in  the  least  desirable  localities  in  the  community. 
They  may  resort  to  the  lowlands  along  a  river 
home  life  flowing  through  the  community,  where  the  land 
in  cities  jg  unhealthful  and  in  danger  of  floods.  In  some 
river  towns  most  wretched  dwelling  places  may  be  found 
in  such  localities.  In  large  cities  many  families  are  often 
crowded  together  in  buildings  owned  by  men  who  can  get 
better  returns  by  charging  small  rents  to  many  families 
than  they  could  by  charging  larger  rents  to  a  few.  These 
crowded  dwelling  places,  which  often  do  not  deserve  the 
name  of  homes,  are  called  tenements,  and  the  section  of 
the  city  where  the  crowding  is  the  worst  and  the  buildings 
are  the  poorest  constitutes  what  is  known  as  the  slums. 
These  tenement  dwellings  involve  all  sorts  of  evils.  Where 
so  many  families  live  in  one  building,  and  where  many 
buildings  are  crowded  together  without  space  between, 
there  cannot  be  the  privacy  that  is  essential  to  good  home 
life.     Such  conditions  are  also  detrimental  to  health.     The 


SERVICES    RENDERED    BY   THE   FAMILY  29 

sunlight  never  penetrates  to  the  interior  of  some  of  these 
buildings.  They  are  ill-ventilated  and  unsanitary.  There 
is  no  room  for  playgrounds  for  the  children.  Among  a 
crowd  of  people  in  such  wretched  dwellings  there  are  al- 
ways many  ignorant,  immoral,  and  vicious  persons,  who 
have  a  bad  influence  upon  others  with  whom  they  are  con- 
stantly thrown.  Criminals  often  find  a  safe  hiding  place 
in  the  dark  and  crowded  tenements  of  the  slums. 

Families  living  in  such  conditions  as  we  have  described 
are  less  likely  to  take  an  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
community  and  to  contribute  to  its  well-being,  ^j^^  burden 
On  the  other  hand,  their  part  of  the  community  of  the  worst 
is  a  constant  burden  and  menace  to  the  whole  ^p^j^  t^e 
community.  Fires  are  likely  to  start  among  the  whole 
crowded  and  poorly  constructed  buildings,  and 
to  spread  to  other  parts  of  the  city.  The  unsanitary  con- 
ditions invite  epidemics  of  disease,  which  may  not  easily 
be  restricted  to  the  district  where  they  originate.  Dis- 
order, vice,  and  crime  are  more  frequent  there,  requiring 
police  supervision,  which  has  to  be  paid  for  by  the  whole 
community.  In  many  ways  the  possessor  of  the  good  home 
in  the  better  part  of  the  city  has  to  bear  the  burden  of, 
and  help  pay  for,  the  existence  of  these  poor  homes.  A 
very  large  part  of  the  expense  of  government  could  be 
avoided  if  the  poor  homes  of  the  city  could  be  converted 
into  pleasant  homes,  with  plenty  of  room,  light,  and  fresh 
air.  MiicJi  of  government  is  made  necessary  m  Government 
order  to  take  the  place  of  what  is  lacki7ig  in  the  and  the 
home  life  of  the  commtmity.  °°^^ 

In  many  large  cities  a  movement  has  been  begun  for 
the  improvement  of  conditions  in  the  tenement  districts. 
The  old,  unhealthful  tenements  are  being  removed  and 
better  ones  built.     More  sunlight  is  being  let  in  and  better 


30  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

plumbing  introduced.  Open  courts,  or  yards,  are  pro- 
vided in  order  that  the  people  may  get  out  of  doors. 
Movement  P^^ks  and  playgrounds  are  being  established 
toward  in  the  vicinity  of  the  crowded  districts.  The 
re  orm  introduction  of  rapid  transportation  has  done 
much  to  induce  people  to  move  out  to  the  suburbs,  where 
life  is  more  healthful  and  where  conditions  are  better  for 
home  life. 

It  is  much  better,  however,  to  prevent  wretched  home 
conditions  from  gaining  a  foothold  in  the  community  than 
The  to  have  to  correct  them  after  they  have  appeared. 

oMhe*°°  They  are  conditions  that  tend  to  appear  wher- 
tenement  ever  the  population  is  rapidly  increasing.  '*  The 
earliest  stage  of  the  evolution  is  the  small  one-  or  two-  or 
three-story  house,  with  its  yard  and  flower  beds,  occupied 
by  a  single  family.  As  the  city  grows  and  the  demand  for 
housing  facilities  increases,  rents  become  higher  and  one 
floor  of  the  house  is  re-rented  to  another  family.  A  still 
greater  demand  results  in  a  further  re-renting,  while  the 
yard  is  built  up  with  other  small  houses  occupied  by  one 
or  two  families ;  or  perhaps  the  original  house  is  moved 
to  the  rear  of  the  lot,  and  a  greater  part  of  the  remaining 
space  is  filled  by  one  large  wooden  building,  fashioned 
expressly  for  the  use  of  several  families.  It  is  possible, 
too,  that  the  large  rooms  of  the  original  house,  which  its 
tenant  can  no  longer  afford  to  pay  for,  have  been  sub- 
divided, thus  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  house,  and 
swelling  its  total  income.  The  basement  and  attic  are 
both  occupied,  and  the  house,  having  been  built  for  the 
use  of  one  family,  is  almost  devoid  of  water,  bath,  and 
toilet  facilities."  ^ 

1  Report  of  Qeveland  Chamber  of  Commerce  on  "  Housing  Conditions  in 
Cleveland,"  pages  8,  9. 


SERVICES   RENDERED   BY   THE   FAMILY  31 

In  some  of  our  largest  cities  the  government  has  taken 
hold  of  the  problem  of  the  tenement,  and  laws  have  been 
passed,  prohibiting  the  building  of  dwellings  with-  xenement- 
out  sufficient  space  around  them  to  admit  light  *^°"^®  ^^^^ 
and  air,  requiring  good  sanitation,  and  forbidding  the  over- 
crowding of  people  in  a  single  building.  Unfortunately 
these  laws  are  violated,  and  the  government  frequently 
fails  to  enforce  them.  In  the  smaller  cities,  where  such  con- 
ditions have  not  become  sufficiently  apparent  to  attract  no- 
tice, there  are  often  very  few  laws  upon  the  subject.  It  is  in 
these  cities  that  especial  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  dangerous  tenements,  by  the  enactment  of  pre- 
ventive laws. 

It  is  not  merely  the  dwelling,  however,  but  the  life  within 
it,  that  really  makes  a  home  good  or  bad.  Some  of  the 
worst  homes  are  occasionally  found  in  surroundings  of 
luxury.  Unless  the  relations  between  husband  and  wife, 
between  parents  and  children,  and  between  brothers  and 
sisters,  are  of  the  right  kind,  the  home  will  be  imperfect, 
even  though  it  be  sheltered  in  a  beautiful  dwelling;  and 
it  will  fail  to  perform  its  best  service  to  the  community. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Do  most  of  the  people  in  your  neighborhood  own  their  homes,  or 
do  they  rent?  Can  you  give  illustrations  to  show  that  home  owners 
take  a  greater  interest  in  the  community  than  those  who  rent? 

2.  Is  there  some  section  of  your  community  where  most  of  the  people 
own  their  homes,  and  another  section  where  most  of  the  people  rent? 
If  so,  do  you  notice  any  difference  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  two 
sections?  Do  you  think  that  the  difference,  if  any,  is  due  in  any  part 
to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  people  own  and  some  rent? 

3.  In  the  back  of  the  book  (page  256)  there  is  a  table  showing  the 
number  of  homes  owned  and  the  number  rented  in  the  cities  of  the 
United  States  having  100,000  population  or  over. 

a.  Find  the  city  having  the  smallest  per  cent  of  homes  owned. 
How  do  you  account  for  the  small  per  cent  in  this  city? 


32  THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

\ 

b.  Find  the  city  having  the  largest  per  cent  of  homes  owned.  Can 
you  account  for  it  from  what  you  know  of  the  city? 

c.  Can  you  account  for  the  fact  that  Washington,  D.C.,  has  such  a 
large  per  cent  of  rented  homes? 

d.  Find  out  for  what  Fall  River,  Mass.,  is  noted.  Do  you  think 
there  is  any  relation  between  this  fact  and  the  large  number  of  hired 
homes  ? 

e.  Find  the  figures  of  your  own  city,  if  it  is  in  the  table,  or  the 
nearest  one  to  you,  and  compare  it  with  other  cities  of  about  the  same 
size. 

4.  Observe  the  character  of  the  homes  (dwellings,  yards,  gardens), 
as  you  pass  from  the  center  of  your  city  to  its  outskirts.  Is  there  any 
difference  in  their  appearance?     If  so,  why  is  it? 

5.  Is  there  any  tendency  for  farmers'  families  in  your  neighborhood 
to  move  to  the  city?  If  so,  try  to  find  the  reasons  for  it.  What  be- 
comes of  their  farms  when  the  families  move  away? 

6.  Is  there  any  tendency  for  families  in  the  city  to  move  toward  the 
outskirts  of  the  city,  or  to  the  suburbs?  If  so,  why?  Is  it  chiefly  the 
poorer  people  or  the  well-to-do?  What  happens  to  their  old  dwellings 
in  the  center  of  the  city? 

7.  Are  flats  and  apartment  buildings  being  erected  to  any  extent  in 
your  community?  If  so,  try  to  find  the  causes.  What  are  some  of  the 
effects  on  family  life  of  dwelling  in  flats? 

8.  What  is  being  done  in  your  community  to  improve  the  home  life 
of  the  poorest  families? 

9.  Can  you  think  of  any  public  institutions  in  your  commu- 
nity that  are  made  necessary  by  imperfect  conditions  of  home 
life? 

10.  If  there  is  no  law  forbidding  it,  has  a  man  the  right  to  make  all 
the  money  he  can  by  crowding  as  many  tenants  into  a  house  as  it  will 
hold  ?     Explain. 

11.  Show  how  good  home  life  tends  to  decrease  the  need  for  gov- 
ernment. 

12.  Are  there  any  tenement-house  laws  in  your  community?  If  so, 
what  are  some  of  the  most  important? 


REFERENCES 

Riis,  Jacob  A.,  "  How  the  Other  Half  Lives." 
Riis,  Jacob  A.,  "  The  Battle  with  the  Slums." 

Mn  Riis's  books  are  very  interesting  and  helpful  to  an  understanding 
of  the  conditions  of  the  slums. 


SERVICES   RENDERED   BY   THE   FAMILY 


33 


These  two  books  might  be  used  by  the  pupils.  The  following  refer- 
ences are  intended  primarily  for  the  assistance  of  the  teacher,  though 
the  pupils  may  often  use  them  beneficially  : 

Henderson,  "  Ihe  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  II :  "  Home-Making  as  a 
Social  Art,"  and  chapter  IV :  "  Better  Houses  for  the  People." 

"  Slums  of  Great  Cities,"  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
by  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  Washington,  1894. 

"  Hgusing  of  the  Working  People,"  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Labor,  by  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  1895, 

Estabrook,  H.  K.,  "  Some  Slums  in  Boston." 

First  Report  of  the  Tenement  House  Department  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1902- 
1903. 

"  Housing  Conditions  in  Cleveland,"  Report  of  Investigation  by  the  Cleveland 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  1904. 

"  The  Housing  Problem,"  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  July,  1902. 

"Tenement  Conditions  in  Chicago,"  Report  of  the  Investigating  Committee  of 
City  Homes  Association,  by  Robert  Hunter,  1901. 

"  Chicago  Housing  Conditions,"  by  Sadie  T.  Wald,  in  Charities,  January  6, 
1906. 

"  The  New  Tenement  in  Chicago,"  by  Charles  B.  Ball,  in  Charities,  October  6, 
1906. 

"  Housing  Conditions  in  Philadelphia,"  an  investigation  made  by  Emily  W. 
Dinwiddle,  under  the  direction  of  the  Octavia  Hill  Association,  Philadelphia. 
1904. 


A  I'ENEMENT  BACK  YARD. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE   MAKING   OF  AMERICANS 

Next  to  the  ties  of  family  relationship,  those  of  common 
nationality  and  language  are  perhaps  the  strongest  in  bind- 
The  bond  of  ing  people  together  in  groups.  Americans  in 
nationality  foreign  citics  usually  drift  together  and  take  lodg- 
ings in  the  same  locality.  When  foreigners  come  to  this 
country,  they  tend  to  group  themselves  together  according 
to  their  nationality  or  language.  This  kind  of  grouping 
may  assume  great  importance  in  a  country  like  ours,  where 
many  thousands  of  foreigners  are  pouring  in  upon  us  every 
year. 

America  has  always  been  a  land  of  opportunity,  and 
milhons  of  people  have  come  here  from  foreign  lands  for  the 
The  foreign  purpose  of  bettering  their  condition.  Some  have 
the  United  come,  like  the  Pilgrims  of  Plymouth,  for  religious 
states  freedom.    Others  have  come,  Hke  the  founders  of 

Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  for  political  freedom.  Many 
more  have  come  merely  to  better  their  material  welfare. 
Thousands  are  coming  every  year  because  here  work 
is  plentiful,  and  the  opportunity  is  great  to  earn,  not  merely 
a  living,  but  land  and  a  home  with  comforts  that  were  im- 
possible in  their  native  lands.  In  the  ten  years  from  1896 
to  1905,  5,396,761  foreigners  settled  in  the  United  States, 
and  in  each  of  the  years  1905  and  1906  more  than  1,000,000 
arrived.^  Among  them  are  representatives  of  every  coun- 
try of  Europe  and  many  from  other  lands. 

1  See  Appendix,  page  258,  Tables  of  Immigration. 
34 


THE   MAKING   OF   AMERICANS 


35 


The  tendency  of  these  incoming  foreigners  is  to  drift  to 
sections  of  the  country  where  there  is  already  a  large  num- 
ber of  their  countrymen.     There  are  sections  of  oistribu- 
the  states   of  the  Northwest  where  almost  the  tion  of 
entire  population  is  Swedish.    In  other  states  we    °"^sners 
frequently  find  large  farming-  communities  of  Scotch  or  of 


Copyright,  liW",  by  Underwood  if  Underwood,  New  Tork. 


Immigrants  awaiting  Inspection  at  Ellis  Island, 
New  York  Harbor. 

Germans.     In  some  of  the  coal-mining  regions  the  popu- 
lation is  largely  Slavic.    Manufacturing  towns  often  have 


36  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE    CITIZEN 

large  populations  of  some  one  nationality,  like  the  Belgian 
glass-workers  in  some  parts  of  Indiana.  In  cities,  where 
many  foreigners  settle,  they  usually  arrange  themselves  by 
nationality  in  different  sections  of  the  city.  Thus  we  find 
in  New  York  a  section  occupied  almost  exclusively  by 
Italians,  another  by  Chinese,  another  by  Greeks,  another 
by  Jews,  and  so  on. 

These  different  nationalities  not  only  tend  to  hve  in 
groups,  but  they  also  think  and  act  in  groups.  It  is  very 
Foreign  common  to  hear  at  election  time  of  the  "  German 
within  the  vote "  and  the  ''Irish  vote."  There  are  also  do- 
nation tend    ferences  in  ideas  of  thrift  and  industry,  in  forms 

to  act  as 

units  of  architecture,  in  home  life,  and  in  many  other 

ways.  One  section  of  a  city  may  be  thrifty  and  law-abid- 
ing because  of  the  habits  of  the  nationality  occupying  it, 
while  another  section  will  be  unsightly  and  disorderly. 
Some  observers  are  much  concerned  at  the  present  time 
because  of  the  increasing  immigration  into  the  United 
States  from  the  southern  and  eastern  countries  of  Europe, 
where  the  social  and  political  ideas  of  the  people  are  very 
different  from  those  of  the  United  States. 

There  might  be  great  danger  to  the  peace  and  unity  of 
the  United  States  through  the  immigration  of  so  many 
TheUnited  foreigners,  if  they  actually  remained  for  any 
nation ^f  length  of  time  as  distinct  national  groups  within 
foreigners  our  country.  But  this  is  not  usually  the  case. 
Most  of  these  immigrants  begin  a  process  of  transforma- 
tion from  Germans,  Irish,  Poles,  or  whatever  their  nation- 
ality, into  Americans,  almost  as  soon  as  they  have  landed. 
We  are  a  nation  of  foreigners.  Many  Americans  do  not 
have  to  go  back  very  far  until  they  find  some  ancestor 
just  immigrating  into  this  country  from  a  foreign  land. 
The   hundreds    of     thousands    who.  are    coming    to    our 


THE  MAKING   OF   AMERICANS  37 

shores  this  year  will,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  be 
proud  of  the  name  of  American  ;  and  their  children,  born 
here,  will  not  be  distinguishable  from  the  great  mass  of 
Americans. 

This  breaking  down  of  the  differences  between  the  na- 
tionalities within  our  country  is  due  to  the  growth  of  com- 
mon interests  among  all  who  live  here.  All  came  here  for 
o^reater  freedom  of  relisrion,  of  political  belief,  of  '^^®  growth 

'^  1,  ,1  1  of  common 

labor.     Our  government  allows  to  all  equal  op-  interests 
portunities  and  equal  rights.     Only  in  the  case  of  the  Chin- 


U.  S.  Immigrant  Station,  Ellis  Island. 

ese  has  the  government  prohibited  the  immigration  of  a 
nationality ;  and  in  this  case  it  is  because  the  Chinese  re- 
main foreigners,  no  matter  how  long  they  live  here.  They 
fail  to  become  Americanized,  fail  to  adopt  as  their  own  the 
interests  and  the  customs  of  this  country. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  says :  "  All  per- 
sons born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  Naturaii- 
United  States  and  of  the  state  wherein  they  ^^*^°" 
reside"  (Amendment  XIV).  In  order  to  become  legal 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  therefore,  persons  born  in 
foreign  countries  must  go  through  the  process  of  naturali- 
zation.    They  must  have  lived  in  the  United    States  at 


38  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

least  five  years  and  in  the  state  one  year,  and  must  have 
declared,  before  a  court,  their  intention  of  becoming  citi- 
zens at  least  two  years  before  their  citizenship  papers  are 
given  to  them.  They  must  also  prove  good  character  and 
declare  their  intention  of  observing  the  principles  of  the 
Constitution.  They  then  have  all  the  rights  of  native- 
born  citizens,  except  that  they  may  not  hold  the  office  of 
President  or  Vice-President. 

The  government  has  the  power  to  deny  citizenship 
to  those  who  do  not  prove  themselves  capable  of  exer- 
cising it  properly,  and  even  to  send  such  persons  back 
to  the  land  from  which  they  came*^  Unfortunately  the 
government  has  become  lax  in  the  enforcement  of  this 
law  and  of  the  rules  of  naturahzation.  Not  sufficient 
care  is  taken  to  prove  the  good  character  of  those  who 
apply  for  citizenship.  Just  before  elections  thousands 
of  foreigners  are  hastily  made  citizens  in  order  to  secure 
their  votes  for  one  party  or  the  other. 

Of  the  75,000,000  population  of  the  United  States  in 
1900,  there  were  about  5,000,000  foreigners  who  were  not 
naturalized.  Such  persons  are  known  as  aliens.  Aliens 
enjoy  almost,  although  not  quite,  all  the  privileges  of  citi- 
^.  zens.    They  are  entitled  to  full  protection  of  their 

lives  and  property  by  our  government ;  they  may 
move  freely  about  the  country  and  engage  in  business ; 
they  are  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  state  courts, 
and  to  some  privileges  of  the  national  courts ;  they  have 
freedom  of  religious  belief.  There  are  some  restrictions 
against  the  holding  of  real  estate  by  aliens ;  but  many 
states  allow  it  and  by  the  Homestead  Act  (see  page  44) 
Congress  has  given  millions  of  acres  to  aliens.  In  some 
states  aliens  may  even  vote  for  state  and  national  officers 
after  having  declared  their  intention  of  becoming   citizens. 


THE   MAKING   OF   AMERICANS  39 

In  the  development  of  our  great  country,  with  its  vast 
areas  of  land  to  be  reduced  to  the  use  of  man,  and  with  its 
abundant  resources  of  all  kinds,  it  has  always  it  is 
been  considered  desirable  that  foreigners  should  "hat  th?^ 
come  to  our  land  to  make  it  their  home.  But  it  foreigners 
is  plain  that  if  they  are  to  be  valuable  members  formedlnto 
of  our  community,  they  must  have  or  acquire  Americans 
full  sympathy  with  our  American  ideas.  They  must  be- 
come blended  with  the  mass  of  Americans  among 
whom  they  live,  and  become  Americans  themselves,  not 
merely  in  dress  and  language,  but  in  their  spirit  and  prin- 
ciples. Down  to  the  present  time  this  blending  has  gone 
on  easily  and  rapidly,  because  the  great  mass  of  the  popu- 
lation has  always  been  native  born.  With  the  increasing 
tide  of  immigration  from  foreign  lands  the  problem  be- 
comes more  serious,  and  calls  for  greater  caution  on  the 
part  of  government  as  to  the  admission  of  immigrants. 
Most  of  those  who  come  will  undoubtedly  make  excellent 
citizens.  But  there  are  many  who  will  contribute  nothing 
to  our  welfare,  and  some  who  will  even  antagonize  the  law 
and  order  which  are  so  necessary  in  a  community. 

It  is  necessary  that  every  means  be  adopted  to  instruct 
those  who  come  to  our  land   in  the  ideals  of  American 
citizenship,  and  to    make    of  them  not  merely  The 
partakers  of    our  liberty,  but    contributors   to  ^he  public 
our  community  welfare.     The  school  performs   school 
an    important  service   in  this   direction.      It  not   only  in- 
structs the    children    of    foreigners   in    the    EngUsh  lan- 
guage.   United    States    history,    and    other    subjects    that 
acquaint  them  with  American  ideas,  but  by  bringing  them 
in  constant  association  with  American  children  the  school 
hastens  the  adoption  of  American  ways.      Thus  these  chil- 
dren of  foreigners  are  rapidly  transformed  into  Americans. 


40 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 


The  very  nature  of  the  American  government  tends  to 
destroy  all  differences  of  nationality.  It  is  a  fundamental 
^j^g  idea  of  our  government  that  there  are  certain 

influence  of  political  rights  and  privileges  held  by  all  in  com- 
goveramen  y^^j^^  which  it  is  the  business  of  the  government 
to  protect.  Our  government  is  a  strong  bond  of  union,  not 
because  it  holds  us  together  in  a  forced  union,  but  because 
we  all  have  an  equal  interest  and  share  in  its  benefits  and 
responsibilities. 

'  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

I.  Let  each  pupilin  the  class  fill  in  the  following  blank.  Tabulate 
the  results  for  the  whole  class  on  the  blackboard,  in  order  to  show  the 
blending  of  nationalities  in  the  present  class  : 


Table  showing  Nationality  of 


Father. 


Father's  father-- 
Father's  mother. 


Mother- 


Mother's  father  __ 
Mother's   mother. 


Father's  grandparents 


Mother's  grandparents 


2.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  nationalities  to  be  found  in  your  com- 
munity. Do  any  of  these  nationalities  tend  to  form  groups  by  them- 
selves? If  so,  show  on  a  map  of  your  community  how  this  grouping  has 
taken  place. 

3.  Is  there  any  farming  community  in  your  neighborhood  composed 
entirely  of  some  one  nationality?  Are  there  any  industries  in  your  com- 
munity in  which  the  workmen  are  wholly  or  largely  of  some  foreign 
nationality? 

4.  Do  any  of  the  foreign  nationalities  in  your  community  tend  to  .act 
as  units  (i.e.  the  Irish  by  themselves,  the  Italians  by  themselves)  in 
politics,  in  religious  matters,  or  in  business? 

5.  Are  there  any  communities  in  your  state  composed  largely  of  some 
one  foreign  nationality ?  Where  are  they?  Why  did  these  foreigners 
settle  there  ?    What  are  their  occupations  ? 


THE   MAKING   OF   AMERICANS  41 

6.  Gather  some  facts  regarding  the  number  of  immigrants  to  this 
country,  their  nationalities,  their  character  and  conditions,  their  dis- 
tribution through  the  country  and  in  cities.  (See  immigration  tables  in 
the  appendix,  page  258  ;  and  for  further  details,  see  also  the  references 
below.) 

7.  Debate  the  question :  Foreign  immigration  should  be  further  re- 
stricted by  the  United  States. 

8.  Debate  the  question  :  The  Chinese  should  be  allowed  free  admis- 
sion to  the  United  States  as  in  the  case  of  other  foreigners. 

9.  Do  you  think  it  is  right  that  aliens  should  be  allowed  to  vote,  as 
in  some  states  of  the  Union?     Why? 

10.  Look  up  the  subject  of  fraudulent  naturalization.  (See  Mayo- 
Smith,  "Emigration  and  Immigration,"  pp.  83-85;  Hall,  "Immigra- 
tion," pp.  192-197.) 


REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  pp.  450-453. 

Mayo-Smith,  Richmond,  "Emigration  and  Immigration."  Scribners  (1892). 
A  standard  work. 

Hall,  Prescott  F.,  "  Immigration."  Holt  (1906).  A  very  readable  and  satisfac- 
tory book  covering  all  important  phases  of  the  subject. 

MAGAZINE   ARTICLES 

"Racial  Composition  of  the  American  People."  John  R.  Commons,  in  Chau- 
tauquan,  38:  33-42,  118-125,  332-340.  433-443.  533-543;  39 :  13-22,115-124,  217- 
227  (September,  1903-May,  1904),  ' 

"  Foreign  Element  in  American  Civilization."  A.  H.  Hyde,  in  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  52:    387  (January,  1898), 

"  The  Immigrant."     Charities,  12  :  No.  6  (February  6,  1904). 

"The  Slav  in  America."     Charities,  13  :  No.  10  (December  3,  1904). 

"  Immigration  to  the  Southern  States."  Walter  L.  Fleming,  in  Political 
Science  Quarterly,  20 :    276  (June,  1905) . 

In  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  there  is  a  series  of  articles  by 
Dr.  Allan  McLaughlin,  of  the  United  States  Marine-Hospital  Service, 
some  of  which  are  as  follows  : 

"  The  Slavic  Immigrant,"  63  :    25  (May,  1903). 

"The  Bright  Side  of  Russian  Immigration,"  64:   66  (November,  1903). 

"  Immigration  and  the  Public  Health,"  64:  232  (January,  1904). 

"The  Immigrant,  Past  and  Present,"  65:  224  (July,  1904). 

"  Chinese  and  Japanese  Immigration,"  66:  117  (December,  1904). 

"Social  and  Political  Effects  of  Immigration,"  66:  243  (January,  1905). 

"  How  Immigrants  are  Inspected,"  66:  357  (February,  1905). 


42  THE    COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

On  the  subject  of  the  restriction  of  immigration  : 
In  favor  of: 

"The  Restriction  of  Immigration."  H.  C.  Lodge,  in  North  American  Review, 
152:  27  (January,  1891). 

"  Methods  of  Restricting  Immigration."  Wm.  E.  Chandler,  in  Forum,  13:  128 
(March,  1892). 

"Restriction  of  Immigration."  Francis  A.  Walker,.in  Atlantic  Monthly,  jj  :  822 
(June,  1896) . 

"  Our  National  Dumping-Ground."  Charles  S.  Smith,  in  North  American 
Review,  154:  432  (April,  1892). 

Against : 

"Our  National  Dumping-Ground."  John  B.  Weber,  in  North  American 
Review,  154:  424  (April,  1892). 

"Incalculable  Room  for  Immigrants."  Edward  Atkinson,  in  Forum,  13:  360 
(May,  1892). 

"What  Immigrants  Contribute  to  Industry."  George  F.  Parker,  in  Forum, 
14:  600  (January,  1893). 

"The  Folly  of  Chinese  Exclusion."  H.  H.  Bancroft,  in  North  American 
Review,  179 :  263  (August,  1904) . 

In  the  appendix  of  Hall's  ''Immigration,"  p.  369,  there  is  a  more 
extended  bibliography  on  the  subject  of  immigration. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

HOW    THE    RELATIONS     BETWEEN    THE    PEOPLE    AND 
THE  LAND  ARE  MADE  PERMANENT  AND  DEFINITE 

One  of  the  things  that  distinguish  civilized  men  from 
savages  is  the  fixed  and  permanent  character  of  their  com- 
munities. Travelers  through  the  unbroken  wil-  civilization 
derness  of  America  before  its  settlement  by  white  marked  by 
men  reported  that  they  saw  many  deserted  ofcommun- 
villages.  The  hunting  life  of  the  Indians  made  ^^^^ 
a  fixed  dwelling  place  undesirable,  if  not  impossible.  Their 
organization  into  clans  and  tribes  made  it  of  little  impor- 
tance whether  they  lived  in  one  place  or  another.  In 
civilized  communities,  on  the  other  hand,  the  land  is  divided 
into  wards,  and  townships,  and  counties,  and  states  ;  and 
citizens  have  certain  rights  and  duties  w^hich  they  can 
enjoy,  or  exercise,  only  in  that  division  of  the  land  where 
they  live  permanently.  In  the  development  of  man,  every 
step  that  united  him  more  closely  with  the  land  was  a 
step  in  the  direction  of  civilization,  as  when  he  passed 
from  the  life  of  the  hunter  to  that  of  the  herdsman,  or 
from  the  life  of  the  herdsman  to  that  of  the  farmer. 

The  community  described  in  the  first  chapter  did  not 
pitch  its  tents  with  the  idea  of  soon  moving  on.     It  made 
arrangements  to  become  a  permanent  commu-   perma- 
nity  with   definite  boundaries  and  divisions   of  ^f°*®   ^ . 

^  aimed  at  in 

land  (see  page  3).  A  community  grows  and  founding  a 
prospers  in  proportion  as  the  people  and  the  community 
land  unite  definitely  and  permanently. 

43 


44  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  family  helps  to  bring  about  this  union  in  a  very  im- 
portant way  through  the  building  of  a  home  (see  page  27). 
The  service  When  the  European  nations  were  attempting  to 
famif  in  colonize  America,  many  of  the  first  settlements 
this  respect  failed,  chiefly  because  the  settlers  were  adven- 
turers who  had  no  intention  of  building  homes  here.  It 
soon  became  apparent  to  the  English  that  if  they  were  to 
have  permanent  settlements  in  this  country,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  induce  men  to  bring  their  families  and  found 
permanent  homes. 

In  the  course  of  its  history  our  nation  has  come  into 
possession  of  vast  territories  that  would  be  useless  if  they 
The  were  not  occupied  by  a  population  that  would 

settlement  develop  their  resources.  Our  government  has 
national  hastened  the  occupation  of  this  land  by  appeal- 
domam  jj^g  ^q  men's  desire  to  own  homes..  To  the  men 
who  fought  in  the  Revolutionary  War  the  government  gave 
about  10,000,000  acres  of  land  for  settlement,  and  to  the 
veterans  of  the  Mexican  War  60,000,000  acres,  or  about 
as  much  as  is  comprised  in  the  two  states  of  Indiana  and 
Illinois.  In  1862  Congress  passed  the  Homestead  Act, 
which  provided  that  any  head  of  a  family  might  receive  a 
quarter-section  of  land  (160  acres)  if  he  would  live  on  it 
for  five  years  and  pay  a  small  fee.  Under  this  law  about 
200,000,000  acres  have  been  disposed  of  for  settlement,  or 
nearly  as  much  as  the  land  included  in  the  states  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  Michigan. 
Besides  this,  large  areas  have  been  sold  to  individuals  at 
the  low  price  of  from  $1.25  to  $2.50  per  acre.  Not  only 
farming  land,  but  land  rich  in  timber  and  minerals  has  thus 
been  made  productive.  More  than  150,000,000  acres  have 
been  given  by  the  government  to  some  of  the  great  West- 
ern railroads,  which  have  performed  a  valuable  service  in 


RELATIONS  BETWEEN  PEOPLE  AND  LAND 


45 


opening  and  developing  the  new  lands.  The  nation  has 
been  enriched,  while  at  the  same  time  individuals,  families, 
and  business  enterprises  have  been  benefited.  In  1900 
there  were  in  the  United  States,  not  including  Alaska  and 
our  new  island  possessions,  533,490,440  acres  of  land  still 
open  to  settlement. 


4 

Y 

X 

2 

3 

2 

BAS 

2 
E 

1 
LI 

NE 

4 

3 

2 

1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

0 

2 

2 

Z 

Q- 

3 

W 

4 

I.   X   is  township   3  north  in  range   3  west 

Y   "  "           4      "  '*  "         4  east 

Z    "  "           2  south  "  "         2      " 

W "  "           4       "  "  "         3  west. 

After  the  Revolutionary  War  settlers  began  to  enter  the 
Ohio  Valley  and  claim  land  for  farms.  Each  settler  laid 
out  his  own  farm  with  little  re2:ard  to  the  claims  ^.    „ 

o  The  gov- 

of  others.  The  result  was  great  confusion  and  emment 
many  disputes  over  boundary  lines..  The  govern-  ^"^^^ 
ment  finally  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  affairs  by  making 
a  survey  of  the  whole  region  and  establishing  lines  by 
means  of  which  land  could  be  located  with  certainty. 
The  accompanying  diagrams  will  help  to  make  clear  the 
plan.  The  survey  was  begun  by  establishing  certain 
north  and  south  lines  called  principal  meridians.     There 


46 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 


are  now  twenty-four  of  these,  the  first  being  the  line  that 
separates  Ohio  from  Indiana.  The  last  runs  through 
Oregon.  At  intervals  of  six  miles  east  and  west  of  the 
principal  meridians  were  established  other  meridians 
called  range  lines.  A  parallel  of  latitude  across  this 
country  was  then  chosen  as  a  base  line,  and  at  intervals 


Correction 


L  ne 


Line 


of  six  miles  north  and  south  of  the  base  line  other  lines 
were  estabUshed  called  township  lines.  Thus  the  country 
was  divided  into  townships,  six  miles  square.  These  town- 
ships were  then  numbered  east  or  west  from  a  principal 
meridian,  and  north  or  south  from  the  base  line.  Since 
the  meridians  converge  as  we  go  north  (see  globe),  the 
townships  would  not  be  exactly  square,  but  would  become 
smaller  as  we  go  toward  the  pole.  To  correct  this,  certain 
parallels  north  and  south  of  the  base  line  were  chosen  as  cor- 
rection lines  from  which  the  survey  began  again,  as  from 
the  base  line.  Each  township  was  divided  into  sections  one 
mile  square,  which  therefore  contained  640  acres.  These 
sections  were  numbered  in  each  township  from  i  to  36. 
Each  section  is  divided  into  halves  and  quarters.  The  farm 
of  each  settler  may  be  located  exactly  by  means  of  this 
survey,  and  his  boundaries  are  recorded  in  the  offices  of  the 
government  so  that  there  can  be  no  possible  dispute  over 


RELATIONS  BETWEEN  PEOPLE  AND  LAND 


47 


them.     In    cities    the  land  is  further  subdivided  into  lots 

which  are  also  numbered  and  recorded.     Definiteness  and 

permanence  are  thus  secured. 

It  has  been  stated  that  a  great  deal  of  the  land  of  the 

nation    remains    unsettled.      This   is    called    pubUc    land. 

Much  of  this  unsettled  public  domain  will  un-   ^  ^,.  ,     ^ 

.  r^  ti    Public  land 

doubtedly  be  disposed  of  to  settlers.     Some  of 
it,  in  its  present  condition,  is  useless  because  of  its  desert 
character,  but  it  may  in  part  be  reclaimed  by  artificial  ir- 
rigation.    A  great  deal  of   desert  land  has  already  been 
reclaimed  in   the   far   West.     The   national   government, 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

7 

a 
8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

40 
acres 

NEVi 
NWM 

NVo        NEJi 

80  acres 

SEK 
NEK 
40  acres 

IGO  acres 

160  acres 
8EM 

in.  A  Township  Showing  Sections.  (36  square 
miles.)  Suppose  this  to  be  township  X  in  diagram  I. 
Then  the  section  named  a  is  section  8  of  township  3 
north  in  range  3  west. 


IV.   A  Section    (640  acres) 

Suppose  this  to  be  section  a  of 

diagram  III. 

Then  the   160  acres  in  the  lower 

right-hand   corner   is   the   southeast 

4   of  section  8  of  township  3  north  in 

range  3  west.     The  40  acres  marked 

NE  \  NW  \  is  the  northeast  \  of  the 

northwest  \  of  section  8  of  township  3 

north  in  range  3  west. 

through  its  Reclamation  Service,  a  branch  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Interior,  is  undertaking  an  extensive 
system  of  irrigation,  constructing  great  reservoirs  and 
canals  in  several  of  the  Western  states.  The  government 
has  set  aside  a  number  of  forest  reservations,  largely  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the  sources  of  the  great  rivers 
that  rise  in  them. 


48 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 


The  right  of  the  citizen  to  be  secure  in  his  property  is 
held  very  sacred  in  the  United  States;  but  when  the 
Government  interests  of  the  individual  conflict  with  those  of 
private  ^  ^^^  Community,  the  former  have  to  yield.  The 
property  government  may  control  the  way  in  which  a 
citizen  uses   his   land.     It  may   say  to   him,   "You   must 


immppi 

f"^ 

> 

^^■^^P>  ^'.''-'llg^^H 

Terrace  Irrigation,  California. 


keep  your  premises  clean,  so  as  not  to  endanger  the 
health  of  the  community"  (chapter  IX).  Or,  "Within 
certain  limits  you  shall  not  erect  wooden  buildings,  be- 
cause of  the  danger  to  the  community  from  fire  "  (chap- 
ter X).  It  may  prohibit  some  kinds  of  business  in  certain 
parts  of  the  community  if  they  would  interfere  with  safety 
or  comfort,  as  in  the  case  of  saloons. 

If  the  interests  of  the  whole  community  demand  it,  the 


Diversion  Dam  on  Truckee  River,  Nevada. 

When  the  gates  in  the  dam  are  shut,  the  river  below  the  dam  becomes  dry,  and 

the  water  is  diverted  through  the  headgates  into  the  canal  in  the  foreground. 


^^^  — 

'^iiiiiiliii       t 'it     r 

^^^HiB!r'>:  ^^M 

__j. 

^^H^^^-'^  ^-^ 

BR9I 

^ 

1S^^'    ,.  -^.^ 

Truckee  Irrigation  Canal,  Nevada. 

The  canal  is  cement-lined  and  during  the  irrigating  season  carries  the  entire  flow 
of  the  Truckee  River  thirty  miles  into  the  valley  of  the  Carson  River,  the  flow 
of  which  it  supplements,  and  is  then  led  by  ditches  over  the  land. 


RELATIONS  BETWEEN  PEOPLE  AND  LAND        49 


government  may  even  take  away  the  land  of  a  citizen  and 
devote  it  to  public  uses.     This  is  called  the  right  ^^^  .^^ 
of  emment  domain.     For  example,  if  the  national  of  eminent 
government  wishes  to  build  a  post  ofifice,  it  may   ^^^^^^ 
condemn  the  property  of  private  citizens,  and  remove  all 
buildings.     The    state    has    the    same    right    and   permits 


Furrow  Irrigation,  Arizona. 

cities,  counties,  and  townships  to  exercise  it.  Thus,  if  the 
interests  of  the  community  call  for  a  new  street,  it  may  be 
constructed  through  the  property  of  individuals,  even  to 
the  extent  of  removing  buildings.  So,  also,  a  road  may 
be  built  through  a  man's  farm  by  the  county  government. 
The  state  also  grants  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  eminent 
domain  to  railroads,  because  of  the  important  public  serv- 
ice rendered  by  them.  In  exercising  the  right  of  emi- 
nent domain  a  very  important  condition  must  be  complied 
with  :  the  citizen  vtnstbepaidajiist  amount  for  his  property. 
The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  provides,  "  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  com- 


50  THE    COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

pensation "  (Amendment  V,  last  clause).  If  a  dispute 
arises  between  the  citizen  and  the  government  (or  the 
railroad)  over  the  price  of  the  land,  the  matter  may  be 
brought  before  a  court  for  settlement. 

There  are  certain  conditions  under  v^hich  the  govern- 
ment may  take  private  property  without  the  consent  of 
the  owner,  and  without  paying  for  it.  This  is  an  exercise 
of  the  police  pozvcr ;  it  may  be  sufficiently  illustrated  by 
referring  to  San  Francisco  at  the  time  of  the  fire  which 
followed  the  earthquake.  In  order  to  check  the  spread  of 
the  fire,  the  soldiers  blew  up  with  dynamite  a  great  many 
buildings  which  had  not  been  previously  injured.  This 
was  a  destruction  of  property  for  the  good  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Communities  may  grant  the  use  of  their  highways  to 
private  corporations  that  render  important  public  service, 
^j^g  such  as  street  railways,  telephone  and  telegraph 

granting  of  companies,  and  water  and  gas  companies.  The 
franc  ises  j-ight  to  use  public  property  in  this  way  is  called 
a  franchise.  In  return  for  the  privileges  of  a  franchise 
the  corporation  must  render  definite  services  to  the  com- 
munity, such  as  supplying  light  of  a  good  quality,  water 
that  is  pure,  street-car  service  that  can  be  depended  upon. 
The  government  in  granting  the  franchise  is  acting  solely 
for  the  community,  and  should  look  carefully  after  the 
community's  welfare.  Unfortunately  the  officers  of  the 
government  do  not  always  do  their  duty  in  this  matter, 
and  franchises  are  granted  that  benefit  a  few  individuals 
without  securing  due  advantage  to  the  community  (see 
chapter  XIV). 

It  was  said  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter  that 
our  rights  and  duties  as  citizens  are  determined  largely  by 
our  place   of    residence.     Citizens  of   the  United    States 


RELATIONS  BETWEEN  PEOPLE  AND  LAND  51 

have  certain  political  rights,  such  as  voting  and  holding 
office,  and  certain  duties,  such  as  paying  taxes.  These 
rights  may  be  enjoyed,  and  the  duties  performed,  p^^^^^^i 
only  within  certain  districts  which  the  govern-  divisions  of 
ment  creates  for  this  purpose.  Were  it  not  for  *  ^  ^^ 
this  restriction,  unutterable  confusion  would  exist.  Thus, 
a  citizen  has  the  right  to  vote  within  the  state  where  he 
lives  but  not  in  any  other  state.  The  boundaries  of  the 
states  are  estabHshed  by  the  national  government  (except 
the  original  thirteen  states  of  the  Union,  whose  boundaries 
were  fixed  before  the  national  government  was  organized); 
but  they  may  not  be  changed  afterward  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  state.  The  states  organize  themselves  into 
counties  and  townships. ^  Villages  and  cities  are  granted 
definite  boundaries  by  the  state  government,  and  organ- 
ize themselves  into^^wards  and  precincts.  There  are 
also  congressional,  judicial,  and  revenue  districts,  the 
boundaries  of  which  are  fixed  by  the  governments  of 
the  states  or  nation.  Residence  in  any  of  these  districts 
carries  with  it  duties  and  rights  that  the  citizen  does  not 
have  elsewhere. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  were  the  original  boundaries  of  the  town  or  city  in  which 
you  live?  How  was  the  original  town  laid  out. ^  On  a  map  of  your  city 
mark  the  original  city  limits. 

2.  Whence  does  the  city  get  its  authority  to  add  to  its  territory? 

3.  Report  on  the  coining  of  the  first  important  factories  to  your 
community,  and  show  how  they  gave  permanence  to  the  community. 

4.  Report  on  the  coming  of  the  first  railroad  to  your  community, 
and  its  effect  on  the  permanence  and  growth  of  the  community. 

5.  Are  there  any  business  associations  in  your  community  that  aid 

^  In  the  West  this  political  township  usually  corresponds  with  the  town- 
ship surveyed  by  the  national  government.     See  pages  45,  46. 


52  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

citizens  in  obtaining  homes  of  their  own,  such  as  Building  and  Loan 
Associations?     If  so,  report  how  they  operate. 

6.  Find  out  from  a  real  estate  agent,  or  in  some  other  way,  how  a 
piece  of  land  in  your  community  is  laid  oif  into  lots. 

7.  Make  a  map  of  your  county,  showing  townships. 

8.  Find  out  in  what  range  your  township  is  with  reference  to  the 
nearest  principal  meridian.  Also,  what  is  the  number  of  your  town- 
ship from  the  base  line?  (These  facts  may  be  learned  from  the  map 
of  the  United  States,  published  by  the  U.  S.  Land  Office,  and  men- 
tioned below  ) 

9.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  try  to  locate  the  lot  in  which  you  dwell 
by  lot  number,  section,  township,  etc.  (See  the  deed  giving  title  to 
the  property,  or  the  records  in  the  county  clerk's  office,  or  in  the  office 
of  the  city  engineer  ) 

10.  Report  more  fully  upon  the  Homestead  Law.     (See  references.) 

11.  Do  you  know  any  instance  of  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  emi- 
nent domain  in  your  community?     Explain. 

12.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  government  regulates 
the  use  of  the  land  you  live  on  ? 

13.  Make  a  list  of  the  land  owned  by  the  government  in  your  com- 
munity, and  state  whether  it  belongs  to  nation,  state,  or  local  com- 
munity. 

14.  Describe  the  ward  divisions  of  your  city.  How  were  they  laid 
out?     How  may  their  boundaries  be  changed? 

15.  Are  there  any  forest  or  park  reservations  in  your  state?  If  so, 
what  is  their  purpose  ?    Locate  them.    Do  they  belong  to  state  or  nation  ? 

16.  Report  on  what  has  been  done  in  the  reclaiming  of  desert  lands 
in  the  West  by  irrigation.     (See  references.) 

17.  Has  any  land  been  given  to  your  state  by  the  national  govern- 
ment for  purposes  other  than  schools?     If  so,  what? 

REFERENCES 

A  map  of  the  United  States  published  by  the  U.  S.  Land  Office, 
which  can  be  secured  for  $1.25,  shows  the  government  survey  of  the 
Western  lands,  including  principal  meridians,  base  lines,  and  town- 
ship and  range  lines.  It  also  shows  forest  and  Indian  reservations, 
lighthouses  and  life-saving  stations,  and  other  matters  useful  in  the 
study. 

Printed  information  regarding  local  matters,  such  as  are  suggested 
in  some  of  the  topics  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  is  very  meager  in  many 
communities.     Let  the  pupils  endeavor  to  find  as  much  as  they  can  in 


RELATIONS  BETWEEN  PEOPLE  AND  LAND  53 

a  reasonable  time.  County  and  city  maps  are  usually  available  at  the 
city  and  county  offices,  if  nowhere  else.  There  should  be  a  city  and  a 
county  map  in  each  civics  classroom. 

The  "New  International  Encyclopedia"  and  the  "Encyclopedia 
Americana"  are  excellent  for  lookjng  up  topics  of  national  importance, 
such  as  Irrigation,  Public  Lands,  Homestead  Act.  These  encyclope- 
dias will  be  of  use  throughout  the  study. 

Hart's  "  Actual  Government "  has  an  excellent  chapter  on  Land  and 
Landholding,  including  a  discussion  of  private,  corporate,  and  govern- 
ment landholding,  the  public  lands,  the  government  survey,  the  Home- 
stead Act.  This  book  is  most  valuable  as  a  book  for  the  teacher's 
desk,  and  will  be  found  to  cover  practically  every  topic,  local,  state,  or 
national,  referred  to  in  this  text-book. 

On  the  subject  of  irrigation  the  following  are  good  : 

The  Pacific  Monthly,  September,  1906.  Contains  a  series  of  articles  explaining 
the  work  of  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service  in  the  various  irrigation  dis- 
tricts of  the  WeBt. 

"An  Object  Lesson  in  Irrigation,"  Review  of  Reviews,  31  :  701  (1905). 

"The  Winning  of  the  Desert,"  Outing,  45  :  545  (1905). 

"The  Government  as  a  Homemaker,"  The  II  or/ci  To-day,  10  :  156  (1906). 

"Reclamation,"  Outlook,?,-^  :  933  (1906), 

"  Uncle  Sam's  Romance  with  Science  and  the  Soil,"  Arena,  35  :  36. 


CHAPTER   IX 

HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   AIDS   THE   CITIZEN   TO 
SATISFY    HIS   DESIRE   FOR   HEALTH 

Communities  have  developed  through  the  efforts  of  men 
to  satisfy  their  desires  (see  chapter  IV).  In  so  far  as  the 
community  provides  for  the  wants  of  its  citizens,  it  is  a 
good  community ;  if  it  fails  to  provide  for  any  of  them,  it 
is  an  imperfect  community,  and  the  lives  of  the  citizens 
will  be  incomplete.  The  desire  for  health  is  the  first  to  be 
provided  for. 

In  the  conditions  in  which  the  pioneer  family  lived,  life 
and  health  were  almost  wholly  dependent  upon  the  efforts 
The  pro-  and  the  arrangements  of  the  family  itself. 
o^heSth  in  ^^^^  ^^^  clearing  of  the  wilderness  and  the 
the  family  advance  of  civilization,  the  preservation  of  life 
and  health  has  become  much  less  simple  and  direct.  Not 
that  the  responsibility  of  the  family  has  decreased  in  any 
way :  it  has  rather  become  greater ;  but  the  health  of  the 
individual  has  become  dependent  upon  so  many  things 
outside  of  the  family  that  the  latter  alone  cannot  provide 
fully  for  it. 

With  the  growth  of  the  community,  while  the  dangers 
peculiar  to  the  wilderness  have  disappeared,  new  ones 
New  have  arisen  to  beset  the  life  and  health  of  the 

dangers         citizen.     Streams  that  were  originally  clear  and 

anse  ,  ^  -^ 

with  the        sparkling,  supplying  fish  for  food  and  water  to 

growth  of      drink,  when  passing  throus:h  the  crowded  set- 

communi-  r-  o  o 

ties  tlements  of  men  become  impure  with  the  refuse 

of  factories  and  the  sewage  of  dwellings.     They  then  pour 

54 


I.  A  section  of  the  canal  cut  through  solid  rock. 


2.  A  section  of  the  canal  where  it  passes  from  the  solid  rock  to  the  soft  earth. 


3.   The  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 
Three  Views  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  55 

forth  vile  odors  and  disease  germs.     The  drinking  water -> 
from  wells  and  streams  becomes    unsafe.     With   the  in-  ^ 
crease  of  population  the  danger  of  epidemics  of  disease 
increases.     Impure  and  unwholesome  food  is  sold  in  the  ^ 
markets  and  over  the  counters  of  the  stores.     Wild  beasts 
and  savages  are  no  longer  to  be  feared  ;  but  unprotected  \^ 
railroad  crossings,  rapidly  running  trolley  cars  and  automo- 
biles, poorly  constructed  buildings   and  elevators,  burning 
buildings,  and  robbers  and  thugs,  constantly  threaten  the 
life  of  the  unwary.     In  the  crowded  cities  a  vigorous  out-  "' 
door  life  is  wanting.     Men,   women,   and    children   grow 
pale   and    sickly    because  of  indoor  occupations,   lack  of 
exercise,  and  the  breathing  of  air  vitiated  by  smoke  and 
foul   odors.      Whatever   disadvantages  the   country   child 
may  suffer  from  an  isolated  life,  his  chances  for  a  sound 
and  healthy  body,  a  most  priceless  possession,  are  generally 
greater  than  the  city  child's. 

As  the  community  grows  and  the  people  become  busy 
with  their  various  callings,  it  becomes  necessary  to  arrange 
for  systematic  protection,  and  to  center  the  re-  Government 
sponsibility  for  it  upon  some  designated  person  is  given 
or  group  of  persons.  With  the  organization  of  the^helmT'^ 
a  government,  it  is  given  supervision  over  the  arrange- 
health  arrangements.  In  the  community  de- 
scribed in  the  first  chapter,  the  trustees  of  the  town 
were  assigned  the  duty  of  "  securing  the  general  health  of 
the  inhabitants,"  and  of  "keeping  in  repair  the  drains  and 
sewers."  When  the  stream  which  ran  through  the  town 
became  clogged  with  sawdust  from  the  mill,  the  trustees 
appointed  a  committee  of  one  to  investigate.  He  reported 
and  pledged  himself,  "  should  mildness  and  good  nature 
fail,  to  lend  a  hand  in  applying  the  strong  arm  of  the  law." 
Again,  a    little  later,   information   was    received   of   the 


56  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

approach  of  a  band  of  Swedish  immigrants  afflicted  with 
cholera.  Aid  was  sent  to  them,  but  they  were  warned 
not  to  enter  the  town,  and  an  appeal  was  published  in  the 
little  newspaper  urging  all  to  "  use  every  means  to  avert 
the  impending  danger.  Let  your  premises  be  thoroughly 
cleansed  and  purified.  Remove  everything  that  will  tend 
to  invite  disease."  A  board  of  health  was  soon  created, 
and  a  commissioner  of  health  was  appointed  who  was  to 
have  general  supervision  over  the  sanitation  of  the  town 
and  report  to  the  board  for  action.  A  health  policeman 
was  also  appointed.  He  inspected  drains,  sinks,  and 
cellars  in  private  houses,  and  fruits  and  meats  in  the  mar- 
kets. A  city  physician  was  appointed  to  care  for  the  sick 
among  the  poor,  and  was  paid  by  the  community  for  his 
services.  In  large  cities  the  officers  who  have  supervision 
of  the  health  arrangements  are  more  numerous  than  in 
the  smaller  communities,  and  their  duties  are  more  exten- 
sive. They  are  all  usually  under  the  direction  of  the 
board  of  health. 

With  the  growth  of  a  community  the  separate  and 
inadequate  drains  of  individual  householders  soon  give 
Sewers  ^^^  ^^  ^^  extensive  system  of  sewers  under- 

and  water  lying  all  the  streets,  connections  being  made  with 
supp  y  every  lot  and  house  in  the  city.    Here  the  natural 

slope  and  drainage  of  the  community  become  very  important, 
because  they  determine  the  ease  and  effectiveness  with  which 
the  sewage  can  be  carried  away.  Sometimes  it  is  drained 
into  a  stream  that  runs  through  or  near  the  city.  This  is  dan- 
gerous to  health  unless  the  stream  is  converted  into  a  closed 
sewer  oris  kept  purified  in  someway.  In  Chicago  the  sewage 
is  drained  into  the  Chicago  River,  and  thus,  until  recently,  was 
carried  into  Lake  Michigan,  whence  the  people  draw  their 
supply  of  drinking  water.     The  result  was  a  great  deal  of 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH 


57 


sickness,  such  as  typhoid  fever.  The  river  also  was  a 
menace  to  health,  because  it  was  a  foul-smelling  and  disease- 
breeding  stream.  Chemists  were  employed  by  the  city  to 
examine  the  drinking  water  and  report  its  condition  in  the 
newspapers  each  day.  The  more  careful  families  boiled 
all  water  used  for  drinking.     But  in  spite  of  these   pre- 


^^H^Z^  '  "'^••" 'ailili 


Filter  Beds  of  the  Indianapolis  Water  Works. 

Water  from  White   River  is  brought  to  these  beds,  where  it  is  filtered  through 
layers  of  sand,  gravel,  and  perforated  tile.     See  next  illustration. 

cautions  thousands  of  people  were  made  sick,  and  many 
died  each  year  as  a  result  of  drinking  this  bad  water. 
This  situation  was  greatly  improved  by  the  construction  of 
a  drainage  canal  which  carries  the  water  of  the  Chicago 
River  into  the  Illinois  River,  and  thence  into  the  Missis- 
sippi, instead  of  allowing  it  to  flow  into  the  lake.  This 
effectually  disposes  of  the  sewage  of  the  city,  keeps  the 
river  flushed  and  pure,  and  prevents  the  lake  from  being 
contaminated.  -^ 

A  few  years  ago  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  appeared 
in    an    Eastern    city,   resulting   in  the    death  of   a  great 


58 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


many  people  and  the  sickness  of  many  more.  A  careful 
inspection  disclosed  the  fact  that  there  had  been  a  case 
of  typhoid  fever  in  a  family  living  near  the  reservoir  from 
which  the  city  drew  its  water  supply,  and  that  this  family 
had  not  been  careful  in  the  disposal  of  its  sewage.  The 
ground  about  the  house  had  become  infected  with  the 
disease,  and  heavy  rains  had  carried  the  disease  germs  into 


Filter  Bed  of  the  Indianapolis  Water  Works. 

This  view  shows  the  bed  in  process  of  construction  :  at  the  bottom  a  layer  of  per- 
forated tile,  and  upon  this  a  layer  of  gravel  is  being  placed.  Upon  this  will  be 
a  layer  of  sand. 

the  reservoir.  This  case  illustrates  the  important  connection 
between  the  drainage,  the  water  supply,  and  the  health  of 
a  community.  It  illustrates  also  the  heavy  responsibility 
of  the  individual  citizen  and  family  for  the  welfare  of  the 
whole  community.  The  larger  the  community,  the  greater 
is  the  problem  of  preserving  health. 

The  most  important  precaution  against  disease  is  clean- 
liness.  This  is  a  matter  that  m  ust  be  looked  after  principally 

in  the  home.     If  each  family  would  take  proper 
Cleanliness  •'  r      r 

precautions  to  secure  cleanliness  and  plenty  of 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  59 

fresh  air,  not  only  would  the  problem  of  disease  in  the 
community  be  largely  solved,  but  the  expense  of  govern- 
ment would  be  greatly  decreased.  Because  of  the  failure 
of  the  family  and  of  the  individual  citizen  to  do  their  part, 
the  community,  through  its  government,  enacts  ordinances 
to  compel  people  to  keep  their  premises  clean  and  their 
drains  in  proper  condition.  Ordinances  usually  exist  to 
prevent  the  filthy  and  dangerous  practice  of  spitting  in 
public  places.  This  practice  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
means  of  spreading  some  of  the  worst  diseases,  such  as 
tuberculosis  or  consumption,  and  the  ordinances  to  prevent 
it  are  among  the  most  important  enacted  by  our  city  govern- 
ments. Unfortunately  they  are  also  among  those  m'ost 
seldom  enforced  and  most  often  violated.  Here  is  one  of 
the  cases  where  constant  and  concerted  action  on  the  part 
of  all  cleanly  and  well-informed  persons  is  necessary  to 
secure  the  enforcement  of  the  law. 

Every   city   has   its    street-cleaning    department,    which 
does  not  always  do  its  work  as  well  as  it  should.     In  large 
cities  it  consists  of  an  army  of  men,  with  horses 
and  wagons  and  suitable  machinery  for  sweeping  cleaning 
and  cleansing  the  streets  and  alleys.    These  men  ^^^  smoke 

,  ,  1  .   .  r  1  1  inspection 

are  under  the  supervision  of  a  board  or  a 
commissioner,  acting  under  the  authority  of  the  government 
(see  chapter  XXII).  There  are  also  smoke  inspectors, 
whose  work  is  important  in  keeping  the  atmosphere  pure. 
If  the  stoking  of  the  furnaces  in  factories  and  large  build- 
ings is  done  properly,  the  smoke  nuisance  can  be  greatly 
lessened.  There  are  smoke  consumers  which  aid  in  the 
consumption  of  the  smoke  that  is  otherwise  poured  out  of 
the  chimneys  over  the  community  ;  but  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  putting  them  in  prevents  many  men  from  doing 
so.     The  community  should  insist,  however,  that  the  smoke 


6o  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE  CITIZEN 

nuisance  be  removed  as  far  as  possible,  not  only  because  it 
is  detrimental  to  health,  but  also  because  it  mars  the  beauty 
of  the  city. 

Of  great  importance  in  large  cities  is  the  system  of  parks 
provided  for  the  recreation  of  the  people.  In  small  towns 
parks  are  not  of  such  great  importance  from  the 
play-  standpoint  of  health  ;  but  in  crowded  cities  every 

grounds  breathing  place,  where  fresh,  pure  air  and  grass 
and  trees  can  be  found  and  enjoyed  by  the  people,  is  of  un- 
told value.  One  of  the  best  of  the  charitable  works  in  large 
cities  is  that  by  which  thousands  of  poor  children  are  sent 
to  the  country  or  the  seasn?5re, ' or  to  "fresh-air  farms,'' 
during  the  summer  months.  This  is  doing  much  to  lessen 
the  death  rate  and  the  sickness  in  the  crowded  tenement  dis- 
tricts. In  the  rapid  growth  of  American  cities  not  enough 
care  has  been  taken  to  provide  for  parks.  Provision  should 
be  made  in  all  growing  cities  to  leave  spaces  that  may  be 
converted  into  beautiful  and  refreshing  parks  as  need  arises. 
In  some  cities  playgrounds  are  being  established  and  pro- 
vided with  tennis  courts,  ball  grounds,  and  gymnastic  appa- 
ratus. The  opening  of  school  yards  as  playgrounds  during 
vacation  periods  is  a  good  practice  that  is  growing. 

Cities  have  hospitals,  some  supported  by  private  organi- 
zations, such  as  churches,  and  some  supported  at  public 
Hospitals;  expense.  The  public  hospitals  are  under  the 
quarantine  charge  of  physicians,  surgeons,  and  nurses  paid 
out  of  the  public  treasury.  Precautions  are  taken  against 
the  spread  of  contagious  diseases.  The  government  has 
the  right  to  declare  a  quarantine  against  a  home,  or  even 
against  a  whole  section  of  the  city ;  this  means  that,  in 
case  of  the  existence  of  a  contagious  disease,  the  occu- 
pants of  the  dwelling  or  of  the  section  of  the  city  may  be 
prevented    from  leaving    it,  and    others    prevented   from 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  6l 

entering  it.  Physicians  are  required  by  law  to  report 
contagious  disease  to  the  health  officers,  who  placard  the 
house,  proclaiming  the  existence  of  the  disease.  Persons 
in  whose  homes  such  diseases  exist  may  be  prevented 
from  going  about  their  ordinary  business,  and  the  children 
from  going  to  school.  Physicians  sometimes  grow  care- 
less about  reporting  such  cases  of  sickness,  and  families, 
thinking  solely  of  their  own  convenience,  often  try  to  con- 
ceal the  presence  of  contagious  disease  in  their  homes. 
This  is  not  good  citizenship.  Such  families  endanger  the 
health  of  others.  Much  is  being  done  in  some  of  our 
cities  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease  by  a  systematic 
medical  inspection  in  the  schools. 

Just  as  an  individual,  or  a  family,  is  dependent  for  health 
on  other  individuals  and  families  in  the  neighborhood, 
so  also  a  community  is  more  or  less  dependent  on  other 
communities  for  its  health.  This  is  especially  true  in 
these  days  when  the  means  of  communication  are  so  fully 
developed  and  when  traveling  is  so  common.  Contagious 
diseases  spread  rapidly  from  town  to  town,  and  not  infre- 
quently cover  large  districts  at  the  same  time.  When  an 
epidemic  of  smallpox  breaks  out  in  one  city,  it  is  Dependence 
likely  to  appear  in  other  cities,  and  even  in  the  of  one 
country  districts.  Any  ship  that  enters  our  har-  ^p^™"^**^ 
bors  may  bring  with  it  diseases  from  the  slums  another  for 
of  Europe  or  of  Asia.  When  a  factory  pollutes 
the  stream  that  runs  by  it  with  refuse,  it  threatens  the 
health,  not  only  of  the  immediate  community  in  which  it 
is  situated,  but  also  of  other  communities  farther  down  the 
stream.  W^hen  Chicago  turned  its  sewage  into  the  drain- 
age canal,  and  thence  into  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi 
rivers,  cities  and  towns  for  many  miles  along  these  streams 
became  very  much  alarmed,  and  St.  Louis,  which  derives 


62  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

its  drinking  water  from  the  Mississippi,  brought  suit  in  the 
courts  against  Chicago.  Fortunately,  in  this  case,  it  was 
proved  that  the  water  becomes  freed  from  impurities,  by 
contact  with  the  air,  before  it  reaches  these  other  cities. 
Our  community  life  is  very  compHcated,  and  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  foresee  how  the  actions  of  one  individual  or 
community  may  affect  the  lives  of  others. 

On  account  of  this  interdependence  in  matters  pertaining 

to  health,  it  is  not  safe  to  leave  their  regulation  wholly  to 

each   separate    community,  any  more    than   to 

for  state        leave  it  to  each  separate  family.     The  common 

supervision    interests  of  all  the  communities  within  a  given 

over  health  ,    ,  i     i     i 

area  must  be  guarded  by  some  common  au- 
thority. Hence  the  state,  through  its  government,  makes 
provision  for  the  health  of  all  the  people  subject  to  its 
laws.  There  is  a  state  board  of  health  which  has  super- 
vision over  these  matters.  The  state  government  en- 
deavors to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  streams.  Laws  arc- 
enacted  to  prevent  the  adulteration  of  foods.  A  state 
government  may  declare  a  quarantine  against  neighbor- 
ing states  when  contagious  diseases  are  prevalent.  When 
yellow  fever  appears  in  New  Orleans,  the  surrounding 
states  often  refuse  to  allow  passengers  on  the  railways  to 
enter  from  Louisiana  except  after  the  most  rigid  medical 
inspection.  City,  county,  and  township  governments,  in 
their  regulation  of  matters  pertaining  to  health,  must  con- 
form to  the  broader  regulations  of  the  state. 

While  the  protection  of  the  health  of  citizens  is  left 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  state  and  local  gov- 
ernments, there  are  some  things  that  can  be  better  looked 
after  by  the  national  government,  because  they  are  of 
national  interest.  All  immigrants  from  foreign  countries 
are  required  to  undergo  a  medical  inspection  before  they 


» 

1-                         t 

1 

THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  63 

are  allowed  to  land.    If  signs  of  disease  are  found,  the 
passengers  of  the  ship  may  be  quarantined  until  the  danger 
of  contagion  is   past.     Immigrants   who  are  in   ^j^     , 
such  physical  condition  that  they  are  unable  to  national 
care  for  themselves,  and  would  therefore  be  a  doesfor^the 
burden   on  the  community,  are  required   to  re-  health  of 
turn  to  the  country  from  which  they  came.     In   "*^^®^^ 
a  recent  session  of  Congress  laws  were  passed  providing 
for  the  inspection  of  meats  put  up  in  the  packing  houses 
of  the  country,  and  to  prevent  the  adulteration  of  foods 
with   injurious  materials.     Since  the  product  of    a  great 
packing  or  canning    establishment    is    sent  all  over  the 
country,  its    purity  is  a    matter  of  national   interest,   and 
therefore  is  a  proper  subject  for  regulation  by  the  national 

government. -^ 

The  community  is  thus  doing  a  great  deal,  through  its 
governments,  to  preserve  the  life  and  health  of  its  citi- 
zens, and  it  owes  to  each  citizen  a  reasonable  assurance 
that  protection  will  be  afforded.  On  the  other  hand, 
each  citizen  owes  something  to  the  community  in  this 
matter.  As  we  have  seen,  the  health  of  the  whole  com- 
munity depends  largely  upon  the  cleanliness  and  ^, 
watchfulness  of  each  family.  The  responsibility  sibmty  of 
of  the  citizen  goes  much  further  than  this.  He  *^®  "*'"'' 
should  do  what  he  can  to  secure  from  the  government  the 
best  possible  service  in  these  matters.  If  a  man  employs 
a  watchman  to  guard  his  premises  at  night,  and  the  watch- 
man fails  to  do  his  duty,  the  owner  will  certainly  call  him 
to  task,  and  will  take  every  precaution  against  a  repetition 
of  the  negligence.  The  people  have  a  right  to  demand 
that  their  government  watchmen  do  their  work  well,  and 
to  hold  them  accountable  for  every  failure.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  the  officials  charged  with  important  duties  of  govern- 


64  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

ment,  even  in  such  matters  as  protecting  our  lives  and 
health,  often  become  negligent  and  careless.  They  can- 
not be  relieved  of  the  blame  for  this.  Yet  their  poor  serv- 
ice is  largely  the  fault  of  the  citizens  themselves,  who  do 
not  take  the  trouble  or  the  interest  to  inquire  how  their 
servants  are  doing  their  work,  or  to  call  them  to  account 
when  it  is  badly  done.  Each  citizen  must  constantly  keep 
his  eyes  open,  and  endeavor  to  maintain  a  lively  public 
sentiment  in  these  matters  by  constant  discussion.  He 
should  always  be  willing  to  call  attention  to  any  remissness 
in  the  enforcement  of  the  laws.  This  is  not  merely  a  duty 
to  others ;  his  own  welfare  depends  on  it. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  When  your  community  was  first  founded,  were  the  geographical 
conditions  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  health?  As  the  community 
has  grown,  have  these  geographical  conditions  become  more  or  less 
favorable  ?     ^^xplain. 

2.  How  is  health  cared  for  in  the  average  farmers  family?  In  a 
city  family? 

3.  If  there  are  any  records  available  from  which  to  gain  the  infor- 
mation, compare  the  means  of  protecting  health  in  the  early  days  of 
your  community  with  the  means  used  at  present. 

4.  If  you  live  in  a  rural  community,  what  is  done  by  the  county  and 
township  governments  for  the  protection  of  your  health? 

'  •  5.  If  there  is  a  board  of  health  in  your  city,  of  how  many  members 
does  it  consist?      How  is  it  chosen?     What  are  its  duties? 

-  6.  What  officers  are  employed  by  the  city  for  the  protection  of 
health  ?     Report  on  their  various  duties* 

/yi7.  Report  on  the  street-cleaning  department  —  what  it  does,  what  it 
TOSts,  how  it  is  managed,  etc. 

CZ  8.  Report  on  the  sewage  system  of  your  community.  How  is  the 
sewage  disposed  of  ?     Cost?     Efficiency? 

9.  Report  on  the  methods  of  disposing  of  garbage  in  different  cities. 
What  methods  seem  to  be  best?     What  method  is  used  in  your  city? 

10.  Report  on  the  water  supply  for  drinking  purposes.  To  what 
extent   are   private  wells   used?    What   is   the  source  of  the   public 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  6$ 

water  supply?  Compare  the  purity  of  the  water  from  private  wells 
and  from  the  public  supply. 

11.  Do  you  know  of  any  epidemic  (such  as  typhoid  fever)  that  has 
appeared  in  your  community,  and  that  was  directly  traceable  to  impure 
drinking  water? 

12.  Report  on  means  of  keeping  the  atmosphere  pure  in  your 
community. 

13.  What  means  are  employed  in  your  community  to  secure  pure 
food? 

■^  14.  Report  on  the  park  system  of  your  community.  How  is  it  man- 
aged?    Is  anything  being  done  to  establish  public  playgrounds? 

15.  Is  the  ventilation  of  your  school  building  good?  Can  you 
do  anything  yourself  to  improve  it? 

16.  Write  an  essay  on  the  subject,  "  The  Relation  of  Athletics  in  the 
School  to  the  Health  of  the  Community." 

17.  Is  there  any  kind  of  medical  inspection  in  your  school?  If  so, 
explain  its  working.  Find  out  if  there  are  any  well-established  cases 
where  epidemics  have  been  prevented  or  checked  by  school  medical 
inspection  in  your  community,  or  in  other  cities. 

^18.  What  are  some  of  the  ordinances  in  your  community  for  the  pro- 
tection of  health?  Are  any  of  these  ordinances  commonly  violated? 
If  so,  why?  Can  you  do  anything  to  help  secure  the  enforcement  of 
such  ordinances? 

^19.  Report  on  the  work  of  your  state  board  of  health,  (So  far  as  ^-i 
possible  printed  reports  should  be  secured  directly  from  the  propeL-—-^ 
offices.) 

20.  What  other  state  health  officers  are  there?     What  is  their  work? 

21.  Look  up  the  story  of  how  our  government  waged  war  on  disease 
in  Cuba.  What  have  been  the  results?  Why  should  our  national  gov- 
ernment interest  itself  in  the  matter?  (The  same  may  be  done  with 
reference  to  the  Philippines  or  the  Panama  Canal  Zone.) 

22.  Look  up  the  story  of  the  most  recent  war  against  yellow  fever  in 
our  own  Southern  states.  Was  it  carried  on  by  the  local,  state,  or 
national  government?     Why? 

REFERENCES 

On  the  subject  of  garbage  and  refuse  disposal : 

Waring,  "  Street  Cleaning  and  the  Disposal  of  a  City's  Wastes."  New  York, 
1897. 

Goodrich,  "  The  Economic  Disposal  of  a  Town's  Refuse."  New  York, 
1901. 


66  THE  COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

"  Street  Cleansing  in  New  York,"  Municipal  Affairs,  4  :  721. 
' "  The  Refuse  of  a  Great  City,"  Muftsey's  Magazine,  23  :  81. 
"  The  Wastes  of  a  Great  City,"  Scribner's  Magazine,  34  :  387. 

On  yellow  fever  in  the  South  : 

"  Work  of  the  Citizens  in  New  Orleans,"  Charities,  14 :  1041. 
*'  Behind  the  Yellow  Fever  in  Little  Palermo,"  Charities,  15  :  152. 
"  Yellow  Fever  and  the  South,"  Independent,  59 :  683. 

On  health  in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  : 

"  Health  Conditions  in  Canal  Zone,"  Harper's  Weekly,  49:750  (1905). 
"  Preparing  the  Isthmus  for  Canal  Construction  Work,"  Engineering  Magazine, 
31:17. 

"The  Panama  Canal  —  The  Work  of  the  Sanitary  Force,"  Outlook,  83  :  69. 


CHAPTER   X 

HOW  THE  COMMUNITY  AIDS  THE  CITIZEN  TO  PROTECT 
HIS   LIFE  AND  PROPERTY 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  danger  to  property,  and  often 
to  Ufe,  is  fire.  The  loss  from  fire  in  the  United  States  every 
year  amounts  to  about  $  1 50.000,000.  Much  of  Danger 
this  might  be  avoided  if  each  citizen  were  more  fronifire 
careful  ;  but  fire  is  too  powerful  an  enemy  to  be  left  to  the 
individual  or  to  the  family  to  cope  with,  especially  in  cities. 
If  a  farmer's  house  or  barn  is  burned,  he  himself,  or  some 
member  of  his  family,  is  usually  to  blame  for  it,  and  he  must 
depend  on  his  own  efforts  to  prevent  the  loss.  In  the  city 
the  safety  of  a  citizen's  home  depends  largely  on  his  neigh- 
bors. Fire  is  an  enemy  that  endangers  the  whole  commu- 
nity ;  the  whole  community  miUst  unite  for  defense  against  it. 

In  Philadelphia,  in  Benjamin  Franklin's  time,  ''each 
householder  kept  in  his  shop  or  his  pantry  a  bucket  and  four- 
teen-foot swab ;  while  the  city  provided  hooks,  ^.^^j 
ladders,  and  three  rude  engines  of  English  make,  methods  of 
At  the  first  cry  of  fire  the  whole  town  was  in  ^^  ^  ^"^ 
excitement;  the  laborer  quit  his  work,  the  apprentice  dropped 
his  tools,  buyers  and  sellers  swarmed  from  the  market,  and 
the  shopkeeper,  calling  his  wife  to  watch  his  goods,  seized 
his  bucket  and  hurried  away.  About  the  burning  building 
all  was  confusion  and  disorder.  No  man  was  in  authority. 
Each  man  did  as  he  pleased.  Some  fell  into  line  and  helped 
to  pass  the  full  buckets  from  the  pump  to  the  engine,  or  the 

67 


68  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

empty  buckets  from  the  engine  to  the  pump;  some  caught 
up  the  hooks  and  pulled  down  blazmg  boards  and  shingles  ; 
some  rushed  into  the  building  with  their  bags,  and  came 
out  laden  with  household  stuff."  Franklin,  who  was  always 
on  the  lookout  for  opportunities  to  improve  the  condition 
of  his  community,  thought  that  "  if  so  much  could  be  done 
in  a  way  so  bad,  a  hundredfold  more  could  be  done  if  a 
little  order  were  introduced."  He  aided  in  the  organization 
of  several  fire  companies  equipped  with  the  best  apparatus 
of  the  times  and  working  together  under  discipline,  which 
greatly  reduced  the  losses  frorri  fire  in  Philadelphia,    y 

Until  recently  the  fire  companies  of  cities  were  volunteer 
organizations,  whose  efficiency  was  kept  up  largely  through 
Voiun-  ^^^  spirit  of  rivalry.    Frequent  tournaments  were 

teer  fire  held  in  which  the  companies  of  the  community, 
companies  ^^  ^^  ^^^  neighboring  towns,  contested  with  each 
other  in  running,  climbing  ladders,  and  other  feats.  Such 
organizations  may  still  be  found  in  small  communities. 

In  modern  cities  the  fire-fighting  arrangements  are  much 

more  complicated  and  effective.     Steam  fire  engines  and 

elaborate  apparatus  of  all  kinds  have  been  in- 
Modern  fire-  ,      T,.  .      ,        ,,    ,         ,  , 
fighting         vented.     Horses,  tramed  until  they  show  almost 

arrange-        human  intelligence,  draw  the  engines  and  trucks 

ments  ,        r  a  r      ,  .      ,. 

to  the  fire  at  a  run.  A  system  of  electric  sig- 
nals is  in  operation  in  every  city,  so  that  a  fire  can  be 
announced  instantly  to  the  nearest  fire  station,  and  within 
a  minute  after  the  receipt  of  the  signal  the  horses  are  going 
down  the  street  at  a  gallop,  with  men  and  apparatus.  The 
firemen  are  organized  into  permanent  companies  with  per- 
fect discipline,  and  are  paid  by  the  community.  The 
whole  department  is  under  the  direction  of  a  chief,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  mayor  or  by  a  board.  The  New  York 
City  fire  department  is  the  largest  in  the  world  and  com- 


THE   PROTECTION    OF   PROPERTY  AND    LIFE        69 

prises  about  2500  firemen,  1000  horses,  200  fire  engines, 
more  than  100  hook  and  ladder  trucks,  and  several  fire 
boats  for  the  protection  of  property  along  the  water  front. 

An  important  part  of  the  means  of  protection  against 
fire  is  a  reliable  water  supply.  At  first  private  wells  and 
cisterns  supplied  water  for  fires ;  then  public  The  water 
cisterns  were  built  at  convenient  points.  Now  supply 
every  large  city  is  supplied  with  water  from  some  unfailing 
source.  Cities  on  the  Great  Lakes,  like  Chicago,  draw  their 
water  from  them.  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis  receive  theirs 
from  the  rivers  on  which  they  are  situated.  Inland  cities 
sometimes  get  their  water  from  deep  wells.  It  is  often 
necessary  to  provide  storage  reservoirs.  The  water  is 
forced  to  every  part  of  the  city  through  pipes,  and  hydrants 
at  the  street  corners  or  other  convenient  points  serve  for 
the  attachment  of  hose.  Waterworks  are  sometimes  owned 
and  operated  by  cities  themselves,  but  usually  by  private 
companies  which  receive  a  franchise  from  the  city^^ 

No  department  of  the  public  service  in  cities  is  better 
organized  or  more  efficient  than  the  fire  department.     It  has 
upon  it  a  great  responsibility,  and  the  community 
will  not  be  satisfied  with  anything  but  the  greatest  ^f  dly^iJe 
efficiency  possible.     The  service  requires  men  of  depart- 
intelligence,  sobriety,  courage,  and  endurance  ; 
men  who  are  willing  constantly  to  risk  their  lives  for  the 
good  of  all. 

It  has  been  said  that  seven  eighths  of  the  fires  that  occur 
are  the  result  of  a  lack  of  proper  precautions  in  building. 
That  this  is  true  is  due,  in  part,  to  a  lack  of  in-   „    ,^ 

'         ^       '  Faulty  con- 

telligence  on  the  part  of  builders  ;  in  part  to  the  struction  of 
willingness  of  men  to  take  chances  for  the  sake  ^^ii^^^^gs  ^s 

°  a  cause  of 

of  cheapness.      In   either  case  the  person  re-  loss  from 
sponsible  for  poor  construction  of  buildings  is  a  ^"® 


70  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

menace  to  the  community.  A  builder  is  showing  good 
citizenship  when  he  does  his  job  well ;  poor  citizenship, 
when  he  does  it  badly  through  ignorance,  carelessness, 
or  avarice. 

Communities  try  to  protect  themselves  against  loss  of 
property  and  life  from  fire  by  means  of  laws  regulating  the 
Building  materials  used  in  construction,  the  height  of 
ordinances  buildings,  the  number  of  exits,  the  presence  of 
fire  escapes,  and  many  other  details.  Building  inspectors 
are  appointed.  An  unsafe  building  may  be  condemned 
and  its  use  forbidden  until  its  defects  are  remedied.  It 
would  seem  that  the  people  would  take  a  great  interest 
in  the  safe  construction  of  their  buildings,  and  that  the  laws 
protecting  them  would  be  rigidly  enforced  ;  but  such  is  not 
always  the  case.  For  a  long  time  no  accident  happens. 
The  people  become  careless,  and  the  laws  regulating  build- 
ing are  violated  constantly.  Of  333  tenement  houses 
which  were  being  built  in  New  York  at  one  time,  it  is  said 
that  only  15  conformed  to  the  law.  It  requires  some  great 
disaster  to  arouse  the  people  to  their  own  responsibility. 
Such  was  the  Iroquois  theater  fire  in  Chicago,  in  1903,  in 
which  600  people  lost  their  lives.  y/ 

In  order  to  prevent  great  loss  to  individuals  from  fire, 
fire  insurance  companies  have  been  organized.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  insurance  companies  do 
insurance  not  actually  prevent  the  loss  of  property.  They 
companies  merely  distribute  that  loss  among  many  citizens. 
When  a  man  insures  his  property,  he  has  to  pay  the  com- 
pany 2i  premium  for  the  protection  afforded.  The  premi- 
ums of  thousands  of  persons  produce  a  large  sum  of 
money  out  of  which  the  occasional  losses  by  an  individual 
are  met.  Thousands  of  property  owners  in  all  parts  of 
the    land   are  thus   sharing   in  the  losses  of  individuals 


THE   PROTECTION   OF   PROPERTY  AND  LIFE        71 

When  the  great  fire  occurred  in  San  Francisco,  following  y 
the  earthquake  in  1906,  the  loss  fell  very  heavily  on  the  in- 
surance companies.  In  order  to  meet  the  loss  many  com- 
panies raised  the  rates  of  insurance  all  over  the  country. 
Thus  people  everywhere  were  helping  to  bear  the  burden. 
Fire  insurance  companies  have  an  influence  in  keeping 
fire  departments  efficient,  for  they  raise  the  rates  of  in- 
surance when  they  think  that  fire  protection  is  not  so  good 
as  it  should  be.  The  people  who  have  to  pay  these  rates 
then  demand  better  equipment  and  better  organization  in 
their  fire  departments.  ^ 

Property  and  life  are  endangered  also  by  thieves  and 
other  enemies  of  good  order.  In  rough  communities  on 
the   frontier,    before    government   and  law  are   ^ 

'  ^  Danger 

well  established,  as  in  the  early  days  of  Califor-  from  law- 
nia,  the  honest  but  rough  citizens  sometimes  pro-  ^^^^^^""^ 
tect  themselves  by  voluntary  organizations,  frequently 
known  as  vigilance  committees^  They  seek  out  offenders 
and  punish  them  promptly,  too  often  without  giving  them 
a  fair  trial.  Similar  methods  are  sometimes  found  in  com- 
munities where  there  is  a  regular  government,  as  in  the  case 
of  "white-capping'*  and  lynching  parties.  Such  methods 
are  full  of  evil.  They  are  usually  carried  out  under  cover 
of  darkness  and  in  secret,  thus  opening  a  way  for  rowdy- 
ism and  violence  under  a  pretense  of  administering  justice. 
A  crowd  of  men  gathered  together  hastily  in  a  spirit  of 
revenge  quickly  becomes  a  mob,  and  is  likely  to  adminis- 
ter punishment  to  innocent  persons,  or  cruel  and  inhuman 
punishment  to  the  guilty. 

One  of  the  most  sacred  rights  of  Americans  is  the  right 
to  a  fair  trial,  before  a  jury  of  fellow-citizens,  even  though 
the  accused  is  known  to  be  guilty.  This  right  ^^  j.-  j^^  ^^ 
is  guaranteed  in  the  Constitution  of  the  United   a  fair  trial 


^2  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE  CITIZEN 

States,  which  says  also  that  no  cruel  and  unusual  punish- 
ments shall  be  inflicted  (see  Amendments  VI  and  VI 11). 
It  declares  also  that  no  person  shall  be  "  deprived  of 
life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due  process  of  law " 
(Amendment  V).  Vigilance  committees  may  be  in  a 
measure  justified  in  communities  where  there  is  no  regu- 
larly organized  government  or  law ;  but  white-capping 
and  lynching  parties  in  communities  with  regularly  or- 
ganized governments  are  wholly  without  excuse.  Such 
parties  usurp  powers  granted  by  the  Constitution  to  the 
existing  government,  and  are  as  lawless  as  the  original 
offender.  They  tend  to  create  a  disregard  for  law  and 
order  and  disrespect  for  government. 

JV-  Our  local  governments  have  officers  to  protect  the  life 
and  property  of  citizens,  and  to  arrest  persons  who  inter- 
Th  li  e  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  rights  of  others.  In  townships 
there  are  constables;  in  counties,  sheriffs  and 
their  deputies ;  in  cities,  the  police  department.  The 
police  department  requires  a  high  degree  of  organization 
because  of  the  complex  conditions  of  city  life.  Before  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  the  police  of  our  cities  were  as 
poorly  organized  as  the  fire  departments  of  FrankHn's 
time.  In  New  York,  although  the  population  numbered 
more  than  300,000,  the  policing  of  the  city  at  night  was 
performed  by  a  body  of  citizens  who  pursued  other  occu- 
pations during  the  day.  In  the  city  of  greater  New  York 
the  police  force  consists  to-day  of  about  8000  men,  or  as 
many  as  constituted  the  American  army  at  its  best  during 
the  Revolutionary  War.  It  is  organized  very  much  like 
an  army,  under  a  chief  of  police  and  many  subordinate 
officers.  ~ 

The  police  of  a  city  patrol  its  streets  at  all  times  of  the 
day  and  night  to  protect  property  and  life  against  vio- 


THE   PROTECTION   OF   PROPERTY  AND    LIFE         73 

lence.  They  keep  order  in  crowds  ;  they  guard  Duties  of 
dangerous  street  crossings,  assisting  people  the  police 
across  and  regulating  the  movements  of  vehicles ;  they 
assist  the  health  department  in  enforcing  its  regulations  ; 
they  render  aid  at  fires  in  keeping  the  crowds  back  for 
their  own  safety,  and  to  prevent  interference  with  the  work 
of  the  firemen ;  they  restore  lost  children  to  their  homes^ 
As  in  the  case  of  the  fire  department,  the  duties  of  the 
police  require  strength,  courage,  and  intelligence.  It  is  a 
misfortune,  however,  that  the  police  departments  of  our 
cities  are  not  always  as  efficient  as  the  fire  departments 
(see  page  204).  The  police  department  of  the  city  often 
works  together  with  the  sheriff  of  the  county  and  his  dep- 
uties, and  in  times  of  great  danger  private  citizens  may 
be  sworn  into  service  to  aid  the  police:  At  all  times  the 
police  may  call  on  private  citizens  for  aid  if  necessary. 
Offenders  against  the  persons  or  property  of  citizens  are 
brought  for  trial  before  the  police  (or  magistrates')  courts 
of  cities  ;  or,  for  more  serious  offenses,  before  the  higher 
courts  of  the  state  (see  chapter  XXII I)^ 
-fAnother  important  arrangement  for  the  safety  of  prop- 
erty and  Hfe  is  a  system  of  street  lighting.  In  ancient 
cities,  as  at  Rome,  the  streets  were  narrow  and  street 
crooked,  and  at  night  were  totally  dark,  except  %^ti°g 
as  citizens  lighted  their  way  with  torches.  Philadelphia  had 
no  regular  system  of  street  lamps  until  it  was  established 
by  Franklin.  Modern  American  cities  as  a  rule  have 
broad,  straight,  paved  streets,  illuminated  at  night  by  oil, 
gas,  or  electric  lights.  The  street-lighting  plant  is  some- 
times owned  by  the  city  and  managed  by  the  government ; 
but  it  is  usually  in  the  hands  of  private  companies  paid 
by  the  city  for  their  services.)^. 

Communities  often  regulate  certain  kinds  of  business  for 


74  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

the  sake  of  safety.  The  manufacture  of  explosives  is 
Reeuiation  dangerous  to  life  and  property,  and  is  therefore 
of  business  usually  Carried  on  under  restrictions  as  to  the 
for  safety  location  of  the  factory.  The  liquor  traffic  is  often 
restricted  to  certain  localities,  and  is  checked  by  the  im- 
position of  license  fees.  In  some  communities  it  is  pro- 
hibited altogether.  A  large  part  of  the  policing  of  a  city 
is  made  necessary  by  the  disorders  growing  out  of  the 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  Pawn  shops  are  subject  to 
regulation  by  government  to  prevent  them  from  receiv- 
ing and  disposing  of  stolen  goods.  _; 

In  a  large  community  each  man's  life  and  safety  de- 
pend, to  a  great  extent,  on  the  carefulness  of  others. 
Prevention  The  thousands  of  people  who  travel  on  the  cars 
of  accidents  each  day  are  at  the  mercy  of  those  who  run  the 
train  —  the  engineer,  the  conductor,  the  switchman,  the 
train  dispatcher.  Gross  carelessness  on  the  part  of  such 
responsible  persons  may  be  considered  a  criminal  offense, 
and  may  be  punished  by  the  proper  authorities ;  but  it  is 
better  to  prevent  accidents  than  to  punish  the  responsible 
person  after  the  accident  occurs.  Therefore  the  work  of 
such  persons  is  usually  regulated  by  law,  and  arrange- 
ments are  made  to  prevent  accident.  Railroads  may  be 
compelled  to  station  watchmen  at  dangerous  crossings,  to 
provide  gates  that  are  closed  at  the  approach  of  a  train,  or 
to  run  their  tracks  across  streets  on  elevated  roadways  or 
underneath  the  street.  The  rate  of  speed  at  which  a 
train,  or  electric  car,  or  automobile  may  run  is  established 
by  law,  and  violations  of  the  law  are  punishable  by  fine. 
The  government  also  appoints  building  inspectors  and 
boiler  inspectors.  These  are  only  examples  of  many  pre- 
cautions taken  to  prevent  accident  to  life  and  property. 

Here  again  we  have  to  notice  the  constant  violation  and 


THE   PROTECTION   OF   PROPERTY  AND   LIFE        75 

lax  enforcement  of  the  law.     Trains  rush  through  cities  and 
across  streets  at  unlawful  speed.    Street  cars  and  Lax 
automobiles  do  the  same.     Railroads  often  resist  enforcement 

of  laws  to 

as  long  as  they  can  attempts  to  compel  them  prevent 
to  elevate  their  tracks,  or  to  provide  safety  accident 
gates.  Elevators  are  run  by  incompetent  persons  and 
without  inspection  of  the  machinery.  Inspectors  do  their 
work  in  a  careless  manner.  Theaters  are  built  without 
due  regard  to  the  number  and  position  of  exits.  The 
individual  who  disregards  the  regulations  imposed  by  the 
community,  even  in  such  slight  matters  as  the  speed  of  his 
bicycle,  or  the  lighting  of  its  lamp  on  a  dark  night,  is  help- 
ing to  make  his  community  an  unsafe  and  unpleasant 
place  in  which  to  live. 

Although  the  protection  of    property   and  life  is  thus 
largely  in  the  hands   of   the   local   communities,  most  of 
the  laws  that  constables,  sheriffs,  and  the  police  service  of 
are  called  on  to  enforce  are  made  by  the  state  *^®  ^^^\^  ^^ 
government,  and  apply  aHke  to  all  the  commu-  life  and 
nities  of  the  state.  property 

The  state  militia  corresponds,  in  a  measure,  to  the  police 
of  cities.  In  theory,  the  militia  consists  of  all  able-bodied 
men  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five,  jhe  state 
who  could  be  called  out  in  time  of  great  public  iniiitia 
danger  to  restore  order  or  to  repel  invasion.  In  fact, 
however,  it  is  composed  of  a  number  of  regiments  of  volun- 
teers, organized  in  companies  in  various  communities  of 
the  state.  In  case  of  riot  or  disorder  which  the  local  au- 
thorities cannot  handle,  the  governor  may  be  called  on 
to  send  one  or  more  companies  to  aid  in  restoring  order, 
as  has  been  done  in  the  case  of  riots  among  striking  coal 
miners  in  Illinois  and  Pennsylvania.  The  militia  ^t  the 
several  states  may  be  called  out  by  the  President  of  the 


76  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

United  States  to  suppress  insurrection  or  to  repel  invasion. 
It  may  not,  however,  be  sent  by  him  for  duty  outside  of  the 
United  States.  As  an  organized  army  in  time  of  war  the 
militia  has  shown  some  defects.  In  the  Revolution  and 
in  the  War  of  1812  it  caused  much  trouble  because  of  the 
jealousies  of  the  several  states.  Governors  sometimes 
refused  to  allow  their  militia  to  go  outside  of  their  states. 
Then,  too,  as  in  recent  wars,  the  militia  companies  have 
sometimes  proved  poorly  officered,  poorly  drilled  and 
equipped,  and  impatient  of  discipline. 

For  the  defense  of  our  national  possessions  and  of  the 
liberty  of  our  citizens  against  enemies  from  without,  we 
National  maintain  an  army  and  a  navy.  Our  army  is 
defense  yery  small  as  compared  with  the  armies  of  other 

nations.  Our  geographical  position,  separated  as  we  are 
from  other  great  powers,  has  made  a  large  standing  army 
unnecessary.  The  belief  of  the  founders  of  our  nation  was 
that  a  large  standing  army  was  dangerous  to  the  liberties 
of  the  people  and  a  burden  of  expense.  Our  policy  there- 
fore has  always  been  in  favor  of  as  small  an  army  as  is 
consistent  with  our  national  safety.  In  time  of  war  our  de- 
pendence has  been  chiefly  on  the  militia  or  army  of  citizens 
enhsted  for  the  occasion.  At  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  an 
army  of  more  than  2,000,000  men  was  raised  by  enlistment 
in  the  North,  and  one  of  1,000,000  men  in  the  South.  At 
the  present  time  it  would  be  possible  to  raise  a  vastly 
greater  army  than  this,  although  our  standing  army  of 
regular  soldiers  numbers  less  than  100,000  men.^ 

The  army  not  only  defends  our  territory  against  invasion, 

but  it  may  also  be  sent  to  any  part  of  the  world  to  protect 

the   rights  of   American   citizens.     It   may  be 

called  on  to  quell  local  disturbances  when  the 

state  authorities  are  unable  to  do  so.     In  1894  a  great  strike 


THE  PROTECTION   OF   PROPERTY   AND   LIFE        77 


occurred  in  Chicago,  during  which  much  property  was 
destroyed  and  commerce  between  the  states  was  interfered 
with.  The  local  and  state  authorities  failing  to  quell  the 
disturbance,  the  President  of  the  United  States,  who  is 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  sent  troops  to  restore 
order.  At  the  time  of  the  earthquake  and  fire  in  San 
Francisco  national   troops    from    the  fort   near    by  were 


^^^         ^ 

^^^^^^^**^*^'f :*^'  r^  ''^  '    .  -.v^-  1 

'■'■'  '  '^'^^"^^'''^^               ^-  ^'■''"*^'           1 

I                               .  .:.«^*v:^-:v:-.,,:::.-.-v-A  r^Stk.'      ...l^.^»mmm^^                     m 

Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  during  the  Flood  of  the  Ohio  River  in  1883. 

rushed  into  the  city  to  help  in  maintaining  order  and  in 
protecting  property  and  life.  They,  of  course,  cooperated 
with  the  state  militia  and  the  city  police.  The  national 
troops  are  usually  more  effective  in  restoring  order  than 
either  the  militia  or  the  police. 

The  navy  is  another  means  of  national  protection.     It 
has  been  the  policy  of  the  American  government  to  limit 
our  navy  to  the   smallest  size  consistent  with 
national  safety,  as  in  the  case  of  the  army.     But 
because  of  our  rapidly  growing  commerce  and  the  increas- 
ing interests  of  American  citizens  in  foreign  lands,  together 


y8  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

with  the  acquisition  of  territory  across  the  seas,  a  strong 
navy  has  become  more  essential  than  a  large  army.  At 
the  present  time  our  navy  compares  favorably  in  strength 
with  the  navies  of  other  large  nations.  ^ 

The  national  government  has  done  a  great  deal  for  the 
protection  of  life  and  property  by  removing  obstructions 
Life-saving  to  navigation  along  the  coast,  by  improving 
on  the  coast  harbors,  as  at  N*ew  »Af6«44i  and  at  the  mouth 
of    the    Columbia     River,    by    erecting    lighthouses    and 


Building  the  Levee  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  for  the  Protection  of 
THE  City  against  Floods. 

establishing  life-saving  stations.  Every  year  the  life- 
savers  perform  deeds  of  heroism  by  which  scores  of  lives 
and  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  property  are  saved. 
The  national  government  has  constructed  levees  along 
some  of  our  rivers,  as  on  the  lower  courses  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, for  the  protection  of  the  land  against  floods. 

We  may  learn  from  this  chapter  that  the  protection  of 
health,  life,  and  property  is  placed  almost  wholly  in  the 
hands  of  the  local  governments ;    that  the   state  govern- 


THE   PROTECTION   OF  PROPERTY  AND   LIFE 


79 


ment    acts     only   when     the    welfare    of     the  Protection 
whole  state  demands  it,  or  when  the  difficulties  the  hands  of 
to  be  met  are  beyond  the   powers  of  the  local  ^^^^^  *^^ 

1      ,  ,  .         ,  state  gov- 

authorities  ;  and  that  the  national  government  emments 
acts  for  the  nation  at  large,  and   interferes  in   local  pro- 
tection only  when  the  interests  of  the  whole  nation  are  at 
stake,  or  when  the  local  and  state  authorities  prove  them- 
selves incapable  of  handling  the  situation. 


An  Ohio  River  Flood  seen  from  the  Top  of  the  Levee  at 

Lawrenceburg,  Ind. 

The  city  is  now  entirely  protected  by  the  great  embankment. 

Notice  the  railroad  tracks  on  the  levee  for  safety.  / 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  were  the  means  of  fighting  fires  in  your  community  in  the 
early  days?  (Inquire  of  old  residents.)  How  did  the  methods  compare 
with  those  of  PVanklin's  time? 

2.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  fire  department  in  your  city. 
How  is  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  among  the  firemen  secured? 

3.  Report  on  the  waterworks  system  of  your  city.  Is  it  efficient? 
If  not,  why  ? 


80  THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

4.  Try  to  find  out  the  chief  causes  of  the  fires  in  your  community 
in  the  last  year. 

5.  From  the  city  ordinances  find  some  of  the  regulations  regarding 
the  construction  of  buildings. 

6.  Is  there  building  inspection  in  your  community?  Is  violation  of 
building  ordinances  common? 

7.  Report  on  the  duties  of  the  constable.     Of  the  sheriff. 

8.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  police  department  What 
qualifications  must  a  man  have  to  receive  appointment  as  a  policeman 
in  your  community? 

9.  Look  up  the  services  of  Benjamin  Franklin  in  Philadelphia  in 
improving  -the  fire  department,  the  night  watch,  and  the  lighting  of 
the  streets  (see  Franklin's  Autobiography) . 

10.  What  is  the  method  of  street  lighting  in  your  community?  Is  it 
done  by  the  community  itself,  or  by  a  private  company  ?  Is  it  as  well 
done  as  it  should  be? 

11.  What  kinds  of  business  in  your  community  are  regulated  for  the 
protection  of  life  and  property? 

12.  What  other  ways  can  you  find  in  which  property  is  protected 
besides  those  mentioned  in  this  chapter? 

13.  Investigate  the  subject  of  the  violation  of  speed  regulations,  and 
other  regulations  to  secure  safety  on  the  streets  of  your  city. 

14.  Have  you  an  organization  of  militia  in  your  community  ?  Find 
out  what  you  can  about  its  organization.  Try  to  find  out  something 
about  the  following  points :  a.  What  is  the  numerical  strength  of  the 
militia  in  your  state?  b.  How  are  its  officers  chosen?  c.  What  is  the 
relation  between  your  state  militia  and  the  national  army  ?  d.  What  in- 
stances do  you  know  of  your  state  militia  being  called  out  to  suppress 
disorder? 

15.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  organization  of  the  United 
States  army. 

16.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  organization  of  the  United 
States  navy. 

17.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  work  of  the  life-saving  service 
of  the  United  States. 

REFERENCES 

For  information  regarding  the  organization  of  branches  of  local  gov- 
ernment, such  as  the  fire  and  police  departments,  the  city  charter  and 
city  ordinances  may  be  consulted.  In  many  cases  there  may  be  printed 
reports  of  the  departments  in  question.  It  will  often  be  impracticable 
to  expect  the  whole  class  to  gather  full  information  on  such  matters ; 
but  one  or  two  pupils  may  make  special  reports. 


THE   PROTECTION   OF  PROPERTY   AND   LIFE        8 1 

Benjamin  Franklin's  Autobiography. 

Riis,  Jacob,  "  Heroes  Who  Fight  Hres,"  in  Century  Magazine,  33  :  483. 

Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapter  XXXIII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  "Actual  Government,"  pp.  462-477,  for  the  organization  of  the 
army,  the  navy,  and  the  militia;  pp.  573-582  (fire  protection,  police,  etc.). 

Fairlie,  J.  A.,  "Municipal  Administration,"  chapter  VIII,  "Public  Health 
and  Safety." 

Wilcox,  D.  F,,  "The  American  City,"  chapter  VI,  "  Municipal  Insurance." 

Conkling,  "  City  Government  in  the  United  States,"  chapters  V,  VI. 

Kaler,  James  Otis,  "  The  Life  Savers." 

Adams,  W.  H.  S.,  "  The  Story  of  our  Lighthouses  and  Light  Ships." 

"  Heroes  of  Peace,"  Century  Mngazine,  55  :  925 ;  58  :  210. 

"History  and  Organization  of  the  Life-saving  Service";  a  pamphlet  that  may 
be  obtained  from  the  Superintendent  of  the  Life-Saving  Service,  Washington,  D.C. 

The  location  of  lighthouses  and  life-saving  stations  may  be  seen  on  the  Land 
Office  Map  of  the  United  States  already  referred  to. 


Lighthouse  on  the  Shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  THE  COMMUNITY  AND  THE 
CITIZEN  IN  BUSINESS  LIFE 

A  LARGE  part  of  the  activity  of  the  people  of  every  com- 
munity is*  due  to  their  desire  for  wealth,  and  constitutes  the 
Thebusi-  business  life  of  the  community.  It  is  well  to 
ne^shfe  remember  that,  when  we  speak  of  wealth  in 
community  this  connection,  we  do  not  necessarily  mean 
great  riches,  but  all  material  goods,  however  much  or 
Httle,  for  which  men  are  willing  to  work.  In  many 
people  the  desire  for  wealth  is  very  strong,  and  some- 
times becomes  a  passion  that  smothers  the  other  de- 
sires of  life ;  then  it  tends  to  make  men  narrow  and  selfish, 
and  to  interfere  with  their  greatest  usefulness  in  the  com- 
munity. Wealth  is  worth  having  only  when  it  contributes 
to  the  health,  the  knowledge,  the  beautiful  surroundings 
—  in  a  word,  to  the  complete  life  of  those  who  possess  it. 
But  whether  the  purpose  be  to  attain  completeness  of  life, 
or  merely  to  satisfy  greed,  or  perhaps  to  enjoy  the  excite- 
ment of  the  game  of  business,  the  business  life  of  a  com- 
munity always  occupies  a  large  part  of  the  attention  of  the 
people. 

The  dependence  of  each  citizen  on  the  community  is 
nowhere  seen  more  clearly  than  in  his  business  life ;  no- 
where is  his  responsibility  to  the  community  greater ;  no^ 
where  is  there  greater  opportunity  for  good  citizen s^hip. 

How  dependent  the  individual  is  on  the  community  for 

82 


THE   BUSINESS   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY         83 

success  in  satisfying  his  desire  for  wealth  might  be  shown 
in  many  ways,  but  we  shall  take  only  one  or  jhe  pioneer 
two  illustrations.  The  pioneer  family  was  al-  family  was 
most  wholly  dependent  on  its  own  efforts  for  largely  on 
the  accumulation  of  wealth,  and  consequently  ^*^®^ 
this  wealth  was  very  limited  in  quantity  and  quality. 
The  articles  of  home  manufacture  were  usually  few 
and  rough.  There  were  few  materials  to  select  from, 
and  the  many  things  to  be  done  left  little  time  for  doing 
any  one  thing  except  in  the  simplest  way  possible.  All 
the  members  of  the  family  contributed  to  the  common  re- 
sult, and  they  divided  the  work  so  that  each  had  his 
special  tasks  and  became  more  skillful  than  the  others  in 
their  performance.  All  worked  together  for  the  common 
good,  and  each  received  a  share  of  the  results  of  the  labor 
of  all. 

As  this  small  community  consisting  of  one  family  was 
increased  by  other  families,  a  better  opportunity  was  given 
for  a  division  of  labor.  One  member  of  the  There- 
original  family,  who  had  formerly  made  the  division  of 
shoes  for  his  family  only,  on  account  of  his  skill  labor 
at  that  work  and  because  of  the  demands  of  the  addi- 
tional famihes,  was  now  enabled  to  devote  his  entire 
time  to  shoe  making.  Members  of  these  new  families  were 
skillful  in  other  crafts,  one  a  baker,  another  a  weaver, 
another  a  miller,  and  another  a  blacksmith.  The  needs 
of  the  community  for  bread,  clothing,  flour,  and  tools  were 
now  sufficient  to  enable  the  baker,  the  weaver,  the  miller, 
and  the  blacksmith  to  devote  their  entire  time  to  their 
trades,  thus  both  increasing  the  amount  and  improving  the 
quality  of  their  products.  One  after  another  the  duties 
of  the  farmer  were  lessened  until  finally  it  became  his 
special  business   to   provide  farm   products  for  the  whole 


84  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

community  in  return  for  the  things  that  the  others  did  for 
him. 

With  the  introduction  of  machinery  and  the  building 
of  factories  where  hundreds  of  men  are  employed,  the 
Effect  of  division  of  tasks  has  become  more  complete, 
modern         ^nd  each  worker  rarely  produces  more  than  one 

industrial  •'    *■ 

organiza-  thmg.  In  well-organized  factories,  each  work- 
^^^  man  devotes  his  entire  time  to  producing  one 

small  part  of  each  article.  In  a  factory  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  milling  machinery,  for  example,  one  set  of  work- 
men does  nothing  but  chip  the  surface  of  millstones  with 
hammers  to  make  them  rough.  They  apparently  con- 
tribute very  little  to  the  general  welfare ;  but  the  com- 
munity provides  them  with  a  living  in  order  that  they 
may  do  this  one  thing,  and  do  it  well.  We  say  that  they 
receive  so  much  a  day  for  their  work.  In  reality  they 
are  being  supplied  with  bread  and  meat,  clothing  and 
shelter,  furniture  and  tools,  medicines  and  doctors'  serv- 
ices, education  for  their  children,  rehgious  teaching  on 
Sundays,  entertainment  at  the  theaters,  and  scores  of 
other  things,  in  exchange  for  their  monotonous  and  ap- 
parently unimportant  work  of  putting  rough  surfaces  on 
millstones. 

Division  of  occupations  also  takes  place  in  accordance 
with  geographical  location.  This  is  of  great  importance 
Geocraphi-  ^^  ^  large  Community  like  our  nation.  In 
cai  division  some  parts  of  the  country  corn  is  the  chief  prod- 
of  labor  ^^^  .  -^^  others  cotton  ;  in  others  fruit.  In  some 
parts  cattle  or  sheep  raising  takes  the  place  of  farming ; 
in  other  parts  mining.  The  different  metals  are  found  in 
different  localities.  In  one  place  lumbering  is  the  chief 
occupation  ;  in  another  place  fishing.  One  region  becomes 
famous   for   its   cotton    manufactures ;    another   for   silk ; 


THE   BUSINESS   LIFE  OF   THE   COMMUNITY         85 

another  for  iron.  The  gardener  who  gives  his  whole  time 
to  raising  vegetables  to  supply  the  market  of  some  small 
city  receives  in  return  bread  from  wheat  raised  in  the  Da- 
kotas  ;  clothing  manufactured  in  New  England  from  cotton 
raised  in  Texas,  or  from  wool  raised  in  Montana.  He 
uses  wagons  made  in  Indiana  of  timber  raised  in  the  South 
and  of  iron  mined  in  Minnesota  and  smelted  in  Ohio. 


A  Market  Scene. 

In  these  days  of  large  business  enterprises,  the  men  who 
run  the  machines  and  perform  labor  of  other  kinds  are 
not  usually  the  men  who  furnish  these  machines.  Dependence 
and  the  other  forms  of  capital.     The  men  who  °^  employer 

and  em- 
furnish  the  capital  and  those  who  furnish  the  pioyeeon 

labor  are  dependent  on  each  other.     It  is  true  ®^*^^  °^^^^ 

that  they  often  act  toward  each  other  as  if  their  interests 

were    antagonistic.     Although    the    workingmen   are  far 

more    numerous    than    their  employers,  the    latter  have 

usually  had  the  advantage    in    a   conflict,  because    their 

greater    wealth    enables   them    to    sustain    themselves   in 

idleness  for  a  time  without  suffering.     In  order  to  protect 


S6  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

their  own^  interests  vvorkingmen  in  many  trades  and  indus- 
tries have  organized  themselves  into  tinio)is,  so  that  by 
acting  together  they  may  secure  from  their  employers  a 
recognition  of  their  rights.  This  is  well,  provided  that 
the  unions  remember  always  that  their  employers  and  the 
community  at  large  also  have  rights  which  must  be 
regarded.  "  Neither  can  take  advantage  of  the  other  with- 
out the  common  interest  suffering.  The  mutual  object 
of  both  is  to  produce  the  best  possible  article  at  the  lowest 
ppssible  price,  in  order  to  place  it  within  reach  of  the 
greatest  possible  number  of  purchasers." 

Thus  we  see  how  every  worker  in  the  community  is 
dependent  on  all  the  other  workers.  The  success  of  each 
depends  very  largely  on  how  well  the  whole  business 
organization  of  the  community  does  its  work.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  community  depends  on  each  individual, 
and  on  each  class  of  workers,  to  do  his  or  its  work  well. 
Each  citizen,  as  a  worker  in  the  business  life  of  the  com- 
munity, has  upon  him  a  great  responsibility. 

A  man  engages  in  business  activities  primarily  to  satisfy 
the  wants  of  himself  and  his  family.  But  he  can  do  this 
The  life  of  a  o^ly  by  performing  work  that  will  be  useful  to 
community    others,  and  that  will  help  to  satisfy  their  desires. 

is  a  life  of  .  .  ,  .  i  •      i  •  i         i  i 

productive  A  carpenter,  in  order  to  gain  a  livelihood  and 
work  X.0  provide  his  family  with  the  comforts  of  life, 

must  build  houses  for  others.  He  may  be  most  concerned 
about  ivJiat  he  will  receive  for  his  work ;  the  community  is 
most  concerned  about  what  Jie  produces.  If  he  does  care- 
ful, skillful  work,  he  is  considered  a  valuable  member  of 
the  community.  If  he  is  careless,  or  a  poor  workman,  he 
is  considered  in  that  respect  a  poor  citizen.  Good  citizen- 
ship shows  itself  in  the  productive  work  of  a  man  more 
than  in  any  other  way. 


THE    BUSINESS   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY 


87 


The  history  of  our  country  has  been  very  largely  a  story 
of  the  clearing  of  forests,  of  the  reclaiming  of  the  soil 
for  agriculture,  of  the  opening  of  mines,  and  of  xhe builders 
the  growth  of  commerce,  manufactures,  and  ©four 
cities.  It  is  a  story  of  the  building  of  railroads 
and  steamboats,  of  telegraphs  and  telephones.  The  men 
who  have  done  these  things  are  as  much  the  builders  of 


Two  Views  of  an  Engink  Factory. 

Showing  how  the  factory  has  been  given  attractive  appearance. 

Notice  the  vine-covered  buildings  and  smoke-stack. 

our  nation  as  the  men  who  made  our  constitutions  and 
organized  our  governments.  The  men  and  women  who  are 
to-day  working  on  the  farms  or  in  the  mines,  in  factories 
and  shops,  in  stores  and  offices,  or  in  other  Unes  of  business, 
are  as  truly  doing  their  country  a  service  as  those  who 
hold  the  offices  of  government.  Both  kinds  of  service, 
are  necessary,  and  in  either  case  patriotic  _  citizenship 
consists  in  giving  to  the  community  the  best  service 
possible. 

It  is  important  that  the  citizen  should  realize  that,  in 
the  work  by  which  he  makes  a  living,  he  has  a  great 
responsibility  toward  the  other  members  of  the  community. 


88       ••a>>4^ElcaMMtiN.i:rY   AN D<»-T HE*  CITIZEN- 


-**>-^ 


The  employee  is  responsible  to  his  employer  for  the  very 
best  work  he  can  do,  for  the  employer  is  depending  on  him 
to  help  in  producing  the  best  possible  article 
sibiiityof  for  the  use  of  the  community.  The  employer, 
the  citizen     ^^^     ^^^    Other     hand,    is    responsible    for    the 

in  business  '  ^ 

welfare  of  those  who  work  for  him.  A  con- 
stantly increasing  number  of  employers  are  coming  to 
realize  that  this  means  more  than  merely  giving  fair  wages 
to  the  employees  and  are  providing  them  with  better  places 
in  which  to  work,  with  healthful  and  pleasant  surroundings, 
and  with  arrangements  for  their  comfort  and  convenience. 
In  some  cases  employers  are  even  aiding  their  workmen 
to  secure  pleasant  and  comfortable  homes,  knowing  that 
the  better  their  workmen  are  cared  for  by  them,  the  more 
earnestly  will  they  work  for  the  success  of  the  business. 
),  Every  citizen  in  his  business  life  is  under  obligations  to 
the  community  as  a  whole.  No  man's  business  belongs  to 
A  citizen's  himself  alone  ;  it  belongs  also  to  the  community, 
business  is  The  community  enters  into  a  sort  of  agreement 
commu-  ^^^^  him  in  regard  to  his  business,  to  the  effect 
nity's  that  if  he  will  perform  a  certain  service  for  the 

community,  the  community  will  support  him. 
If  he  is  a  merchant  or  a  manufacturer,  the  community 
has  a  right  to  expect  from  him  honest  goods  and  full 
measure.  If  he  is  a  mechanic,  it  has  the  right  to  expect 
from  him  good  workmanship.  If  he  is  engaged  in  the 
management  of  a  railroad,  it  has  a  right  to  demand  safety, 
comfort,  and  reasonable  rates.  No  matter  what  his 
occupation  may  be,  nor  how  large  or  how  small  his 
business,  he  is  sure  to  show  the  character  of  his  citizenship 
in  the  character  of  the  product  of  his  labor. 

But  the  citizen  in  business  has  a  greater  responsibility 
than  for  the  quality  of  the  product  of  his  work.     Business 


THE   BUSINESS   LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY         89 

life,  and  in  fact  the  whole  life  of  the  community,  could 
not  be  successfully  carried  on  if  it  were  not  for  the  con- 
fidence that  men  have  in  each  other.  Think  for  xhe  respon- 
a  moment  what  confusion  and  unhappiness  there  sibmty  of 

...  -  ,  .  „  ,  the  citizen 

would  be  if  It  were  not  for  this  confidence,  for  con- 
When  we  ride  on  the  railroad,  we  need  confidence  fi^ence 
in  the  excellence  of  the  work  of  those  who  made  the  loco- 
motive, of  those  who  laid  the  rails  and  built  the  bridges, 
of  those  who  run  the  train,  and  of  those  who  arrange  the 
schedule  and  give  the  signals.  When  we  buy  food,  or 
clothing,  or  any  other  product  of  human  labor,  we  must 
have  confidence  in  the  merchant  and  in  the  manufacturer 
before  we  willingly  part  with  the  money  that  we  have 
earned  by  our  own  efforts.  When  we  receive  money  for 
our  work,  we  must  have  confidence  in  the  government  that 
stamps  the  bills  with  its  promise  to  pay  a  certain  sum. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  business  dealings 
between  individuals,  between  communities,  and  between 
nations,  is  carried  on  by  a  system  of  credit,  which  is  based 
on  the  confidence  that  men  feel  in  one  another  and  in  the 
arrangements  of  the  business  world.  Men  would  never 
deposit  their  money  in  banks  if  it  were  not  for  the  confi- 
dence they  feel  in  the  banks,  and  in  the  government  and 
laws  that  are  behind  them.  Every  accident  on  the  rail- 
roads causes  men  to  lose  confidence,  not  only  in  the  man 
who  was  guilty  of  carelessness,  but  also  in  the  management 
of  railroads  in  general.  When  an  employer  finds  that  he 
cannot  trust  one  of  his  employees,  it  tends  to  destroy  con- 
fidence in  all  employees.  Every  failure  on  the  part  of  an 
individual  to  meet  his  business  obligations  tends  to  destroy 
the  confidence  of  men  in  one  another's  business  integrity. 
In  short,  every  exhibition  of  dishonesty  or  inefificiency  on 
the    part   of  a  citizen  in  his  business  relations  helps  to 


90  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

undermine  the  confidence  of  the  community,  and  to  shake 
the  foundation  upon  which  the  community  rests. 

It  is  one  of  the  best  marks  of  good  citizenship  to  per- 
form the  most  efficient  work  possible,  whatever  one's  call- 
Patriotism  ^"S*  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  patriotism  when  a  man  gives 
in  business  all  that  he  has,  even  his  Ufe  if  necessary,  for  the 
^®  good  of  his  country,  without   stopping  to  con- 

sider whether  he  will  receive  an  equal  benefit  in  return. 
There   is   no  higher  type  of  patriotism  than  that  which 
leads  a  citizen  to  perform   his  best  service  for  the  com-i 
munity  in  his  daily  caUing,  not  for  what  he  can  get  for  it,/ 
but  for  what  he  can  give. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Find  out  what  the  early  settlers  in  your  community  had  to  pay  for 
the  land.  What  is  the  same  land  worth  now?  What  has  produced 
the  change  in  value? 

2.  Compare  the  extent  to  which  a  farmer's  family  is  dependent  on 
others  in  making  a  living,  with  that  to  which  a  city  family  is  dependent. 

^  ^  3.  Make  a  list  of  twelve  or  fifteen  different  occupations  in  your  com- 
munity. How  many  of  these  did  each  family  have  to  carry  on  for  itself 
in  the  early  days  of  your  community? 

^  4.  What  advantages  can  you  see  in  a  division  of  tasks  or  occupa- 
tions?    What  disadvantages? 

5.  Visit  a  factory  in  your  community  and  report  on  the  division  of 
labor  that  you  find  there. 

6.  Take  the  list  of  occupations  mentioned  in  the  paragraph  on  geo- 
graphical division  of  occupations  (page  84)  and  locate  on  a  map  of  the 
United  States  a  region  characterized  by"  each.  Show  how  geographical 
conditions  determine  this  division  of  occupations. 

7.  Is  there  a  geographical  division  of  occupations  in  your  state? 
Draw  a  map  of  your  state  and  locate  characteristic  industries. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  workmen  that  have  been 
engaged  in  producing  the  different  objects  in  your  schoolroom.  What 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  have  contributed  to  the  equipment 
of  your  schoolroom  ? 

,  9.  Show  how  a  strike  of  workmen  against  their  employers  injures  .the 
employers;  the  workmen  themselves;  the  whole  community.  (Use  for 
illustration  a  strike  that  has  occurred  in  your  own  community.) 


THE   BUSINESS    LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY         91 

10.  Is  it  true,  in  your  comnuinity,  that  the  most  useful  citizens  are  those 
who  care  more  about  the  excellence  of  their  work  than  about  what  they 
receive  for  it  ?     Illustrate. 

11.  So  far  as  your  experience  goes,  what  boys  have  been  most  success- 
ful in  business  —  those  who  make  it  a  practice  to  do  all  they  can  for  their 
employers,  or  those  who  have  tried  to  do  the  least  possible? 

12.  Who  have  been  some  of  the  builders  of  your  own  community  by 
reason  of  their  business  life?     Explain. 

^13.  Show  how  a  few  dishonest  pupils  in  a  school  will  tend  to  destroy 
confidence  throughout  the  whole  school.  What  are  some  of  the  results 
of  this  loss  of  confidence  on  the  life  of  the  school? 

f  14.  Do  you  know  of  any  case  in  your  community  in  which  the  failure  of 
some  individual  to  do  his  whole  duty  in  business  has  shaken  the  confidence 
of  the  entire  community? 

15.  Are  there  any  business  establishments  in  your  community  in  which 
special  efforts  are  made  to  provide  for  the  welfare  and  comfort  of  the  em- 
ployees? What  is  the  eftect  upon  the  employees?  Upon  the  business? 
Upon  the  community  ? 

REFERENCES 

Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XLVII,  XLVIII. 

Smith,  Adam,  "The  Wealth  of  Nations,"  Book  I,  chapters  I-III  (division  of 
labor) . 

Meakin,  Budgett,  "  Model  Factories  and  Villages."  Gives  an  excellent  account 
of  what  employers  are  doing  for  their  employees  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

Earle,  Alice  Morse,  "  Colonial  Dames  and  Good  Wives,"  chapter  XII,  "  Fire- 
side Industries." 


■^^^WMr—^-^^ 


The  Well-kept  Home  of  an  Employee  of  a  Mining  Company  in 

Michigan. 

This  company  is  much  interested  in  the  welfare  of  its  employees, 

and  encourages  them  in  the  improvement  of  their  homes. 


CHAPTER  XII     / 

HOW    THE    GOVERNMENT    AIDS    THE    CITIZEN    IN    HIS 
BUSINESS   LIFE 

Security  in  one's  material  possessions  has  always  been 
one  of  the  most  sacred  rights  of  Americans.  The  Revolu- 
The  sacred-  tionary  War  was  brought  on  because  the  English 
property  government  persistently  refused  to  recognize 
rights  this  right    of   the   colonists.     It  took    away    a 

part  of  their  property  by  taxation  without  asking  their 
consent.  It  passed  laws  interfering  with  their  commerce 
and  manufactures.  It  quartered  troops  in  their  houses 
without  their  permission.  It  gave  its  officers  unHmited 
power  to  search  their  houses  and  ships  without  duly  pro- 
tecting the  rights  of  innocent  and  law-abiding  citizens. 
When  independence  had  been  won  and  a  constitution  was 
to  be  adopted,  the  people  demanded  a  sure  protection  of 
this  right  to  their  property.  They  refused  to  ratify  the 
Constitution  until  amendments  guaranteeing  security  in 
their  possessions  had  been  promised. 

The  colonists  recognized  the  necessity  of  some  regulation 
of  their  property  rights  and  of  their  business  relations  by 
The  desire  government.  Nowhere  else  do  individuals  come 
for  self-         into  conflict  with  each  other  so  often  as  in  their 

government  .  .  r    i        i. 

in  business  busmess  relations.  Most  of  the  disputes  brought 
matters  before  the  courts  for  settlement  are  over  busi- 
ness or  property  matters.  Such  matters  concern  the 
individual  so  closely  that  the  colonists  believed  that 
their    regulation    should    be    under    their    own    control 

92 


.GOVERNMENT   AND   BUSINESS   LIFE  93 

/through  their  local  colonial  governments.  The  same 
idea  prevailed  when  our  Constitution  was  framed.  Busi- 
ness matters  were  not  placed  under  the  authority  of  the 
national  government,  except  such  as  concern  the  rela- 
tions between  citizens  of  this  country  and  those  of  foreign 
countries,  or  between  citizens  of  two  or  more  states.  Each 
state  has  unlimited  control  over  all  business  relations 
within  its  own  borders.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  the  policy 
of  our  state  governments  to  leave  to  each  citizen  as 'much 
individual  freedom  in  his  business  activities  as  is  consistent 
with  the  welfare  of  the  community. 

When  a  group  of  men  wish  to  organize  as  a  corporation 
for  manufacturing  purposes,  or  to  build  and  operate  a  rail- 
road, or  to  do  an  insurance  business,  it  is  almost  g^ate 
always  the  state  that  gives  them  the  authority,  control  over 
The  state  has  done  much  to  aid  business  by  the  bus^ness^'^^ 
construction  of  roads  (see  chapter  XIV).  The  relations 
state  protects  the  interests  of  workingmen  and  working- 
women.  Most  of  the  states  have  laws  permitting  the 
incorporation  of  labor  unions.  State  laws  place  restric- 
tions on  the  labor  of  children  and  limit  the  number  of 
hours  that  women  may  work  in  factories.  State  laws  also 
provide  for  the  health  of  workers  in  factories  and  mines 
by  requiring  employers  to  maintain  good  sanitary  con- 
ditions, and  by  a  system  of  inspection  to  see  that  the 
requirements  are  carried  out.  In  some  of  the  more  recent 
state  constitutions  special  safeguards  are  thrown  about  the 
working  classes.  In  the  older  constitutions  such  provisions 
are  not  found  because,  when  these  constitutions  were 
framed,  labor  organizations  and  the  factory  system  did  not 
exist.  In  these  older  states  the  legislatures  enact,  from 
time  to  time,  such  laws  as  seem  necessary.  State  laws 
y  also  endeavor  to  prevent  the  community  from  being  de- 


94  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE    CITIZEN 

frauded  by  persons  and  corporations  that  seek  to  render 

dishonest  or  inefficient  service. 

During  the   Revolutionary  War  and  after  it,  until   the 

Constitution  was  adopted,  the  thirteen  states  were  bound 

.    .  together  in   a  very  loose  Confederation   merely 
The  need  of        °  -^  ^ 

a  national  for  purposes  of  common  defense.  There  were 
government  f^^  jg^^g  applying  to  all  the  states  alike.  There 
was  little  uniformity  among  them  in  their  methods  of 
regulating  the  business  relations  of  their  citizens.  Each 
state  had  its  own  form  of  money.  Each  was  at  liberty  to 
levy  taxes  on  goods  brought  from  other  states,  thus 
tending  to  check  commerce.  So  Httle  uniformity  was 
there,  so  bitter  were  the  jealousies  among  the  states,  and 
so  great  did  the  confusion  become,  that  the  Confederation 
was  about  to  fall  to  pieces,  and  the  fruits  of  the  Revolu- 
tion were  in  danger  of  being  lost.  It  was  this  danger, 
due  to  the  confusion  in  business  affairs,  that  led  to  the 
calling  of  the  convention  that  framedour  present  Constitu- 
tion. It  was  found  necessary  to  have  a  government  that 
could  protect  the  common  business  interests  of  all  the 
states  alike. 

The  Congress  created  by  the  Constitution  was  given 
the  power,  which  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  had 
The  powers  not  had,  of  laying  and  collecting  taxes  **  for  the 
of  Congress    common   defense   and   ereneral  welfare,"  but   it 

in  business  ,  . 

matters  was  provided  that  the  *'  duties,  imposts,  and  ex- 
cises shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States " 
(Art.  I,  sec.  8,  clause  i).  The  states  were  forbidden 
to  lay  duties  on  goods  coming  in  from  other  states, 
so  that  interstate  commerce  should  not  be  interfered  with. 
Congress  was  also  given  power  "  to  regulate  commerce 
with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several  states,  and 
with    the    Indian   tribes"   (Art.   I,  sec.  8,  clause  3).      In 


GOVERNMENT   AND    BUSINESS    LIFE  95 

order  to  maintain  successful  business  relations  in  a  com- 
munity it  is  necessary  that  there  be  a  reliable  and  uniform 
system  of  money ;  and  since  this  was  a  matter  of  common 
interest  to  all  the  states,  Congress  was  given  power  **  to 
coin  money,"  and  to  "regulate  the  value  thereof." v.  Under  ::; 
these  last  powers  Congress  has  established  mints  for  the 
coining  of  money,  has  enacted  laws  providing  for  a  uni- 
form currency,  and  has  established  a  national  banking 
system  which  is  not  merely  an  aid  to  the  government  in 
regulating  the  currency  and  in  borrowing  money,  but  is 
also  a  great  convenience  to  the  business  men  of  the  whole 
country.  Congress  was  also  given  the  power  to  fix  the 
standard  of  weights  and  measures  (Art.  I,  sec.  8,  clause  5). 

Under  its  power  to  regulate  foreign  commerce,  Con-"^ 
"gress  has  levied  import  duties  sufficiently  heavy  to  check 
the  importation  of  foreign  manufactures,  and  poj-gignand 
thus  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  these  interstate 
articles  at  home.  It  has  also  established  a  con-  *^o™™®^" 
sular  system  to  look  after  the  commercial  relations  of  this 
country  with  foreign  nations.  Consuls  are  appointed  by 
our  government  to  go  to  the  important  cities  of  all  civilized 
countries.  Among  their  many  duties,  they  investigate  the 
products  and  manufactures  of  the  countries  to  which  they 
are  sent,  try  to  create  a  market  in  those  countries  for 
products  of  the  United  States,  and,  in  general,  try  to  stim- 
ulate favorable  business  relations  between  our  country  and 
all  the  world.  Under  its  power  to  regulate  commerce  be- 
tween the  states.  Congress  has  passed  laws  to  regulate  the 
business  of  corporations  doing  business  in  more  than  one 
state,  such  as  railroads  and  packing  houses.  Among  the 
most  important  aids  rendered  to  the  business  interests  of 
the  country  is  the  postal  service,  created  and  operated  by 
the  national  government  (see  chapter  XIV).      The  most 


96  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

recent  department  of  the  executive  branch  of  government 
to  be  created  by  Congress  is  the  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Labor,  the  chief  purpose  of  which  is  to  investigate 
the  industrial  conditions  of  our  country,  and  to  recommend 
such  legislation  as  seems  desirable  or  necessary  for  the 
welfare  of  the  nation. 

While  some  of  this  regulation  of  business  by  the  state 
and  national  governments  seems  to  impose  restrictions  on 
The  purpose  particular  business  interests,  its  purpose  is  nev- 
of,govern-      erthelcss  to  further  the  interests  of  the  country 

ment  is  ■' 

to  afford  at  large.  The  purpose  of  the  government  is  not 
opportunity  |-q  hedge  the  citizen  about  with  restrictions  on 
his  activities,  but  to  afford  him  the  greatest  possible 
opportunity  for  material  prosperity.  Sometimes  the 
interests  of  the  individual  must  yield  before  the  interests 
of'  the  community  ;  but  usually,  in  the  long  run,  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  community  will  also  be  the  advantage 
of  the  individual.  Occasionally  a  law  is  unwisely  or 
dishonestly  enacted  which  benefits  a  small  class  to  the 
detriment  of  the  majority  of  the  people.  Such  legislation 
is  un-American,  for  the  underlying  principle  of  American 
government  is  the  greatest  possible  good  to  the  greatest 
possible  number. 

FOR   INVESTIGATION 

1.  Which  of  the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  guarantee  the  property  rights  of  citizens?  Explain  each 
of  these  amendments. 

2.  Get  a  list,  or  summary,  of  the  laws  passed  during  the  last  session 
of  your  state  legislature,  and  note  about  what  proportion  of  them  are 
for  the  regulation  of  business  matters.  Study  the  list  to  get  an  idea  of 
the  different  kinds  of  business  matters  dealt  with. 

3.  Is  there  anything  in  yoi]^r  state  constitution  for  the  protection  of 
the  interests  of  the  workingmS?  Anything  for  the  regulation  of 
business  corporations  ? 


GOVERNMENT   AND   BUSINESS   LIFE  97 

4.  What  laws  are  there  in  your  state  for  the  regulation  of  the  labor 
of  children  ?     Of  women  ? 

5.  Is  there  any  system  of  factory  inspection  in  your  state?  If  so, 
what  is  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  inspection? 

6.  Mention  some  recent  laws  passed  by  Congress  under  its  power 
to  regulate  interstate  commerce. 

7.  How  does  a  bank  help  business  men?  Are  there  any  other  banks 
besides  national  banks?     Explain. 

8.  Make  a  report  on  the  United  States  mint. 

9.  Investigate  the  organization  and  duties  of  the  consular  service. 

10.  Do  you  know  any  laws  that  are  said  to  be  for  the  benefit  of  a 
privileged  few  to  the  injury  of  the  many  ? 

11.  Make  a  report  on  the  business  confusion  during  the  time  of  the 
Confederation. 

REFERENCES 

A  copy  of  the  state  constitution  should  be  on  the  teacher's  desk  for 
reference. 

It  is  probable  that  a  summary  of  the  laws  passed  by  the  last  legislature 
can  be  obtained  at  the  city  or  county  offices.  If  not,  it  can  be  obtained, 
from  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  of  your  state.  It  would  be  desir- 
able to  have  on  the  teacher's  desk  a  copy  of  the  revised  statutes  of  the 
state. 

Copies  of  the  laws  regulating  the  labor  of  women  and  children,  factory 
inspection,  etc.,  can  usually  be  had  by  applying  to  the  bureaus  or  depart- 
ments of  the  state  government  dealing  with  such  matters.  The  general 
treatment  of  these  subjects,  as  also  of  the  United  States  mint  and  the 
consular  service,  can  be  found  in  the  New  International  Encyclo- 
pedia. 

Fiske's  "  The  Critical  Period  of  American  History"  has  an  excellent 
chapter  on  the  business  confusion  during  the  Confederation.  (Chapter 
IV,  "  Drifting  Toward  Anarchy.") 

Hart's  "Actual  Government  "  will  again  be  found  useful  in  connection 
with  this  chapter ;  especially  the  chapters  on  "  Commercial  Organiza- 
tion" (chapter  XXVI)  and  "Foreign  Commerce"  (chapter  XXIV), 
and  the  section  on  ''  Consuls,"  on  page  436. 

Forman,  "  Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XL-XLIV. 


CHAPTER    XIII 
WASTE   AND   SAVING 

In  the  accumulation  of  wealth,  saving  is  as  important 
as  production.  Waste  must  be  avoided.  There  is  usually 
Waste  ^  good  deal  of  waste  in  the  household.     There 

in  the  is  wastc  in  clothing  through  lack  of  proper  care, 

through  unwise  purchasing  of  unsuitable  ma- 
terials, and  through  extravagance  in  the  purchase  of  un- 
necessary articles.  There  is  waste  in  fuel,  sometimes  by 
overheating  the  houses,  sometimes  by  improper  care  of  the 
furnaces  or  stoves.  One  of  the  greatest  wastes  is  in  the 
matter  of  food.  *'  Scraps  "  are  thrown  away  that  a  skillful 
housekeeper  would  use.  Unnecessary  quantities  of  food 
are  bought  and  prepared.  Many  a  good  dish  is  spoiled 
in  the  cooking.  Another  waste  is  due  to  ignorance  of 
the  nourishing  values  of  different  articles  of  food.  The 
man  who  works  with  his  hands  in  the  open  air,  con- 
stantly exercising  his  muscles,  needs  a  different  kind  of 
nourishment  from  the  student  who  sits  at  his  desk  all  day. 
Those  who  are  fed  on  the  wrong  kinds  of  food,  or  on  food 
improperly  prepared,  cannot  do  as  good  work  as  they 
otherwise  could.  Not  the  least  important  means  of  secur- 
ing good  citizenship,  as  shown  in  effective  work  in  the 
community,  is  a  better  management  of  the  kitchens  in  the 
homes  of  the  community.. 

It  is  said  that  more  than  three  fourths  of  the  household 
expenditures  in  our  country  are  made  by  the  women.     It 

98 


WASTE   AND   SAVING  99 

is  a  highly  important  service  to  the  community  for  the  girls 
who  are  to  become  the  managers  of  the   households  to 
learn  the  lesson  of  saving.     In  the  pioneer  days  women 
every  girl  learned  at  home  the  details  of  house  are  the 
management.      In    modern    life,    especially    in  of  the 
cities,  it  is  not  always  so.     It  is  now  recognized  household 
that,  in  the  attempts  to  improve  the  conditions  of  Hfe  in 
the  slums  of  a  city,  one  of  the  first  things  to  do  is  to  teach 
the  people  who  live  there  how  to  save  in  their  households, 
in  order  to  get  the  best  results  from  what  they  have. 

In  recent  years  the  school  has  been  assuming  some  of 
the  responsibility  for  the  education  of  the  girls  in  domestic 
science.  Courses  in  cooking  and  sewing  are  j^ie  respon- 
offered  in  an  increasingly  large  number  of  pub-  sibiiityof 
lie  and  private  schools.  Universities  are 
training  young  women  to  become  teachers  of  domestic 
science.  It  is  being  recognized,  as  it  should  be,  that  the 
skillful  management  of  a  household  is  as  useful  and  honor- 
able a  service  to  the  community  as  the  management  of  a 
business. 

The  successful  business  man  always  tries  to  avoid  waste. 
By  introducing  smoke  consumers,  or  by  employing  skillful 
stokers,  he  converts  the  smoke  of  his  furnaces  v/astein 
into  steam  power  instead  of  pouring  it  out  in  business 
clouds  over  the  community.  In  a  well-managed  sawmill 
not  only  is  the  body  of  the  logs  sawed  into  lumber,  but  the 
waste  from  this  process  is  made  into  tool  handles,  chair 
rounds,  and  other  small  articles.  The  pieces  of  wood  that 
are  too  small  for  manufacturing  purposes  may  be  sold  in 
cities  for  kindling.  Even  the  sawdust  is  put  to  various 
uses.  When  the  refining  of  petroleum  oil  was  first  begun, 
there  was  a  great  deal  of  waste  product.  From  this 
former  waste  there  are  now  produced  many  valuable  by- 


lOO  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

products,  such  as  paraffin,  vaseline,  and  dyestuffs.  The 
by-products  of  a  manufacturing  process  are  sometimes 
more  valuable  than  the  main  product. 

Saving  money  does  not  mean  hoarding  it.  He  who 
hoards  is  really  wasteful,  for  the  money  that  he  hoards 
g    .^  might  be  invested  in  such  a  way  that  it  would 

is  not  produce  more  wealth.     He  might  buy  machinery 

oar  mg  -^vith  it  for  manufacturing  purposes ;  he  might 
build  houses  with  it  to  rent ;  he  might  buy  a  stock  of  goods 
with  it,  and  sell  them  at  profit ;  or  he  might  lend  the  money 
to  others  who  wish  the  use  of  it  and  receive  interest. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  person  to  save  by  investing  the 
surplus  of  his  earnings,  so  far  as  he  is  able  to  do  so.  In 
Sa  in  b  ^^^  ^^^^  place,  he  should  endeavor  to  put  it  be- 
investment  yond  a  possibility  that  he  shall  ever  be  a  burden 
IS  a  uty  ^^  others  for  hi^  support,  or  for  the  support  of 
his  family,  in  time  of  sickness,  old  age,  or  lack  of  employ- 
ment. In  the  second  place,  it  is  through  the  investment 
of  savings  that  productive  industries  are  maintained,  and 
the  wealth  of  the  community  is  increased.  The  man  who 
saves  by  investment  supplies  the  community  with  factories, 
machinery,  railways,  and  other  forms  of  capital.  He  also 
becomes  an  employer  of  labor.  He  thus  contributes  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  community. 

Wastefulness  is  often  found  in  the  management  of  the 
community's  business  by  government.  It  is  seen  in  many 
Waste  in  forms.  Through  a  false  idea  of  economy  im- 
government  provements  that  would  result  in  real  economy 
are  not  made :  as  when  roads  or  streets  are  allowed  to  re- 
main unimproved,  thus  causing  an  unnecessary  expense  in 
transportation.  For  lack  of  funds  pavements  that  have 
been  built  at  great  expense  are  allowed  to  go  without  repair 
from  year  to  year  until  the  whole  work  has  to  be  done 


WASTE   AND   SAVING  lOI 

over  again ;  or  the  equipment  of  a  fire  department  may 
be  allowed  to  deteriorate,  while  the  loss  from  fires 
increases. 

Wastefulness  often  results  from  inefficient  service  on  the 
part  of  employees  of  the  government.  Salaries  are  some- 
times paid  to  men  who  are  incompetent,  and  who  hold 
their  positions  only  through  political  favoritism.  Some- 
times costly  improvements  are  undertaken  when  they  are 
not  really  necessary,  or  when  something  less  costly  would 
serve  equally  well,  in  order  to  give  employment  to  polit- 
ical favorites.  Franchises  are  sometimes  given  for  the 
use  of  public  highways  without  due  compensation  to  the 
community.  These  are  only  a  few  of  the  possible  ways  in 
which  waste  may  occur  in  the  government  of  a  commu- 
nity. It  is  found  not  only  in  local  government,  but  also  in 
state  and  national  governments. 

Wastefulness  in  government  may  often  be  attributed  to 
the  incompetence  of  officials,  sometimes  to  their  dishon- 
esty.    It  is  often  due  to  too  Httle  sense  of  re-  Who  is 
sponsibility  on  their  part  for  the  wise  expenditure  for^^^^ 
of  money  that  belongs  to  the  public ;  for  "  the  economical 

,  , .     , ,  ,  11.  .       ,  govern- 

puDlic  means  to  them  nobody  m  particular,  ment? 
But  after  all,  wastefulness  in  the  government  of  the 
community  is  largely  the  fault  of  the  citizens  them- 
selves. They  are  inclined  to  place  the  responsibility  for 
unwise  expenditures  and  other  forms  of  wastefulness  upon 
the  officers  of  government,  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  it  is 
their  own  business  that  is  being  mismanaged.  Each  citi- 
zen owes  it  to  himself  and  to  the  community  to  use  every 
means  at  his  command  to  secure  an  economical  adminis- 
tration of  the  affairs  of  his  community,  so  that  the  invest- 
ments of  citizens  in  the  community  will  bring  the  largest 
possible  returns. 


102  ,TH«.  G€>]VfM^N-JTt.AND   THE  CITIZEN 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  you  are  wasteful? 

2.  What  are  some  ways  of  preventing  waste  in  your  household? 

3.  Investigate  some  factory  or  business  establishment  to  find  out 
how  waste  is  avoided. 

4.  Visit  a  gas  factory  and  find  out  what  by-products  of  value  result 
from  the  manufacture  of  gas. 

.  5.  What  other  industries  do  you  know  in  which  there  are  useful  by- 
products ? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  men  save  by  investment? 
Show  how  each  of  these  methods  of  investment  benefits  the  community. 

7.  Mention  some  ways  in  which  waste  occurs  in  the  government 
of  your  community.  How  would  you  suggest  that  these  wastes  be 
avoided  ? 

REFERENCES 

"The  Problem  of  Waste,"  Independent,  55 :  1324. 
"  A  Century  of  Waste,"  Independent,  52  :  2400. 
"The  Utilization  of  Wastes,"  Engineering  Magazine,  26:  ii8. 
"  Reclaiming  Waste,"  Current  Literature,  30  :  743. 
"  Conserving  Waste  Products,"  World's  Work,  0^:  ly-^i.  ' 
"The  Utilization  of  Waste,"  Forum,  2,'2:  74. 
"  The  Wastes  of  a  Great  City,"  Scribner's  Magazine,  34  :  387. 
Goodrich,  "  The  Economic  Disposal  of  a  Town's  Refuse." 


CHAPTER   XIV 

HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   AIDS   THE  CITIZEN   IN   TRANS- 
PORTATION  AND   COMMUNICATION 

You  will  recall  that  in  seeking  a  site  for  the  community 
described  in  the  first  chapter,  the  exploring  committee  was 
to  notice  whether  there  were  roads  or  canals  near  Community 
by.  The  very  nature  of  a  community  impUes  communT-^ 
that  there  must  be  communication,  for  without  cation 
it  there  could  be  no  way  of  acting  together.  One  of  the 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  united  action  among  the  thirteen 
American  colonies  was  the  absence  of  good  roads  connect- 
ing them.  The  trip  from  New  York  to  Boston  in  those 
times  required  six  days.  A  traveler  tells  us  of  spending  a 
month  in  making  the  journey  from  New  York  to  Washing- 
ton at  a  Uttle  later  time.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  not 
strange  that  it  was  difficult  to  develop  a  spirit  of  union 
among  the  colonies. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  it  cost  ^125  to  haul 
a  ton  of  goods  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburg  by  wagon, 
the  only  means  of  transportation.     It  cost  $2.50  q^^^^^ 
to  carry  a  bushel  of   salt  three  hundred  miles,   transporta- 
Wheat   could  not  profitably  be  transported    by    ^°^ 
wagon  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  because  it 
could  not  be  sold  at  a  price  to  cover  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion.    When  the  cost  of  transportation  was  so  great,  the 
commonest  articles  of  household  use  to-day  were  luxuries 
which  the  people  could  not  afford.      The  cause  of  all  this 
was  excessively  bad  roads. 

103 


I04  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  food  supply  of  the  nation  comes  from  the  farms. 
The  raw  materials  for  manufacture  come  from  the  farms, 
J  the  forest,  and  the  mines.    The  comfort  of  living 

of  country  for  all  of  US,  in  the  city  as  well  as  in  the  country, 
^°^  ^  depends  in  a  great  degree  on  the  ease  with  which 

these  raw  products  can  be  brought  from  the  country  districts. 
It  is  said  that  ninety-five  per  cent  of  every  load  by  train, 
steamship,  or  express,  must  be  carted  over  a  highway. 
The  country  roads  are  the  foundation  of  our  transportation 
system.  And  yet  they  have  been  given  comparatively  little 
attention,  and  America  is  far  behind  many  other  civilized 
countries  in  the  construction  and  preservation  of  roads. 

The  character  of  the  land  has  great  importance  in  de- 
termining good  or  bad  roads.  In  the  fertile  prairies  of  the 
Geoeraoh  West,  although  the  land  is  almost  as  level  as  a 
and  good  floor,  the  roads  often  become  impassable  in  wet 
^°^  ^  weather.     Where    there   are   hills,  the    cost   of 

hauling  is  twice  as  much  as  in  a  level  country,  because 
only  half  as  much  can  be  hauled  in  each  load.  The  effect 
of  the  character  of  the  land  on  roadways  seems  not  to  have 
been  fully  considered  in  America.  Many  of  our  roads  run 
straight  over  hills,  or  through  swamp  land,  which  adds  both 
to  the  difficulties  of  transportation  and  to  the  expense  of 
keeping  the  roads  in  repair. 

The  methods  of  road  building  and  repairing  in  the 
United  States  have  been  wasteful  of  the  people's  money. 
Wasteful  Not  only  has  little  care  been  exercised,  fre- 
Sad°  ^°  quently,  in  the  location  of  the  roads,  but 
making  their  Construction  and  repair  have  been  left 
to  the  farmers  in  the  neighborhood.  In  Indiana,  for 
example,  each  township  trustee  levies  an  annual  tax  on  the 
property  of  the  farmers  for  the  purpose  of  road  improve- 
ment.    This   tax   may   be   worked   oyt    by    the   farmers. 


3-    Finishing  the  road. 

Road  Making  by  the  National  Government. 

This  road  in  Tennessee  was  selected  for  improvement  as  an  object  lesson.  The 
photographs  were  furnished  by  the  Public  Roads  Inquiry  Office,  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 


TRANSPORTATION    AND   COMMUNICATION         105 

Every  able-bodied  man  between  the  ages   of  twenty-one 

and  fifty  years,  residing  in  a  road  district  of  a  township,  is 

required  to  perform  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  four 

days'  labor  on  the  public  roads  each  year  or  to  furnish  a 

substitute;  or  he  may  pay  to  the  road  overseer  ^1.50  a 

day  for  each  day  that  he  should  have  worked. 

Thejn^king  of  a  good  road  requires  scientific  knowledge 

and   skill,  and  is  work  that  should  be  supervised   by   a 

trained  engineer.     The  practice  of  requiring  the  improve- 

farmers  to  work  on  the  roads  should  be  aban-  ™®^*  ^^ 

^     ^  .  1    •  1111        methods  of 

doned,  and  the  tax,  paid  m  money,  should  be  road 

devoted  to  the  employment  of  skilled  engineers,  making 
Improvement  in  the  character  of  the  roads  has  been 
secured  in  some  cases  by  placing  their  management  in  the 
hands  of  the  county  government  instead  of  leaving  it 
under  the  control  of  the  township.  Management  by  the 
county  helps  to  secure  more  uniformly  good  roads  over  a 
larger  area,  and  makes  it  possible  to  secure  better  super- 
vision, because  the  road  taxes  of  the  whole  county  can  be 
devoted  to  the  employment  of  a  county  engineer.  In  those 
sections  where  the  people  have  shown  that  they  really 
want  good  roads,  much  progress  has  been  made  toward 
getting  them.  The  first  thing  necessary  is  to  arouse  pub- 
lic interest  in  the  matter.  That  there  has  been  so  little 
interest  in  the  past  is  due  to  ignorance  of  the  importance 
of  the  roads  to  the  entire  community,  and  of  the  methods 
by  which  they  may  be  secured.  In  the  last  few  years  the 
National  Good  Roads  Association  has  done  much  to  arouse 
public  interest  and  to  secure  legislation  in  many  states. 
The  farrners  are  likely  to  object  to  the  first  cost  of  im- 
provements, until  it  is  shown  that  the  better  roads  enable 
them  to  haul  larger  loads  and  to  make  quicker  time,  thus 
saving,  in  a  few  years,  more  than  the  improvements  cost. 


I06  THE   COMMUNITY  J\ND   THE   CITIZEN 

In  the  beginning  of  our  national  history  the  question  of 
road  making  became  very  important  in  connection  with 
Construe-  the  Settlement  of  the  West  and  the  preservation 
tion  of  early  of  the  Union.     Roads  and  canals  were  proposed 

highways         .  .1  -ru  ..•  . 

left  to  the  in  great  numbers.  The  question  at  once  arose 
states  whether     the    national    or    the    state     govern- 

ment should  aid  in  constructing  highways.  The  only 
clauses  in  the  Constitution  that  could  be  interpreted  as 
giving  the  national  government  authority  to  construct 
roads  were  those  bestowing  the  power  "  to  estabhsh  post 
offices  and  post  roads,"  *'  to  regulate  commerce  with 
foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several  states,"  and  to 
make  war.  The  national  government  was  cautious  about 
exercising  powers  not  explicitly  given  to  it,  and  the  mak- 
ing of  highways  was  left  chiefly  to  the  states  or  to  private 
enterprise.  Many  turnpikes  were  built  by  private  com- 
panies, for  the  use  of  which  tolls  were  charged. 

The  one  great  example  of  road  building  by  the  United 
States  government  is  the  National,  or  Cumberland,  Road. 
This  road  was  authorized  by  Congress  in  1806, 
National  and  was  to  extend  from  Cumberland,  Md., 
^°^^  into  Ohio,  to  aid  in  the  settlement  of  the  West. 

It  was  extended  finally  as  far  west  as* Illinois.  It  after- 
ward passed  under  the  control  of  the  states  through  which 
it  ran,  and  thence  was  given  over  to  the  management  of 
the  counties. 

The  introduction  of  canals  and  of  railroads  caused  the 
private  turnpikes  to  become  unprofitable,  and  the  feeling 
g  grew  that  the  country  highways  were  a  matter 

agement  of  for  local  management.  At  the  present  time  it 
roads  |g   recoguizcd   that   good   country  roads   are   a 

benefit,  not  only  to  the  farmers  living  on  them,  but  also 
to  the  people  of  that  county,  and  even  to  the  whole  state, 


TRANSPORTATION   AND    COMMUNICATION         107 

including  the  towns  and  cities.  Some  of  the  states,  mostly 
in  the  East,  are  therefore  making  a  systematic  reform  in 
road  making.  The  movement  is  slowly  spreading  west. 
In  New  Jersey  a  state  highway  law  was  passed  in  1892.  It 
created  a  state  commissioner  of  public  roads,  and  provided 
that  when  two  thirds  of  the  property  owners  along  a  road 
petition  the  county  for  improvements  they  shall  be  made. 


Old  Wooden  Bridge  on  the  National  Road  crossing  White  River, 
Indianapolis. 

One  tenth  of  the  cost  is  paid  by  the  property  owners  along 
the  road,  one  third  by  the  state,  and  the  remainder  by  the 
people  of  the  county  in  which  the  improvement  is  made. 
The  expense  is  thus  distributed  over  the  whole  state, 
although  the  main  part  is  borne  by  the  immediate  com- 
munity. The  work  is  done  under  the  direction  of  a  county 
engineer,  but  must  be  approved  by  the  state  commission. 
Similar  systems  have  been  adopted  in  other  states. 

Road  making,  especially  in  an  unsettled  country,  is  dif- 
ficult, and  the  cost  of  transportation  by  wagon  is  heavy. 
In    the    early   days    of    our   country,  therefore,   River  trans- 
water  routes  were  always  used  when  possible,  portation 
The  rivers  were  the  natural  highways  into  the  West,  and 


Io8  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

schemes  were  early  proposed  to  improve  them,  as  when 
Washington  urged  the  improvement  of  the  Potomac.  The 
invention  of  the  steamboat  by  Robert  Fulton  in  1806  gave 
a  great  impetus  to  water  transportation,  and  steamboats 
were  soon  plying  the  rivers,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West,  as  well  as  the  Great  Lakes.  The  rapid  development 
of  railways  checked  the  use  of  the  rivers,  although  they  are 
still  an  important  factor  in  the  transportation  system  of 
our  country.  The  commerce  of  the  Great  Lakes  has 
steadily  increased,  and  is  to-day  of  enormous  proportions. 

A  great  deal  has  been  done  by  state  and  national  gov- 
ernments for  the  improvement  of  our  rivers.  The  River 
and  Harbor  Bill,  passed  every  two  years  by  Congress, 
River  and  involves  One  of  the  heaviest  items  of  expense 
harbor  im-  by  the  government.  For  the  benefit  of  naviga- 
^  °  tion  on  our  coast  the  national  government  has 

established  a  coast  survey,  by  which  the  safe  channels  and 
the  dangerous  points  along  the  coast  are  charted  for  the 
guidance  of  seamen. 

The  advantages  of  water  communication  were  so  great  in 
the  days  before  railroads  that  the  construction  of  canals  was 
strongly  urged  by  many,  Albert  Gallatin,  in 
Jefferson's  administration,  proposed  a  series 
of  coastwise  canals  from  New  England  to  South  Carolina. 
There  was  great  opposition  to  such  improvements  at  na- 
tional expense ;  and,  as  in  the  case  of  roads,  it  was  left 
chiefly  for  the  states  and  private  companies  to  undertake 
them.  The  most  successful  of  the.  early  canals  built  under 
state  authority  was  the  Erie  Canal,  connecting  Lake  Erie 
with  the  Hudson  River  and  thus  with  the  Atlantic. 
Its  success  aroused  other  states  to  similar  enterprises. 
Some  of  these  canals  were  successfully  constructed  and 
operated,  but  most  of  them  were  not. . 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         109 

It  was  the  coming  of  the  railroads  that  caused  the  down- 
fall of  the  canal  schemes.  Under  certain  circumstances 
canals  remain,  nevertheless,  an  important  means  of  trans- 
portation. The  Erie  Canal  is  still  an  important  highway, 
and  it  is  proposed  to  increase  its  usefulness  by  enlarging 
it.  The  United  States  government  has  built  a  number  of 
important  canals  in  recent  times  for  the  purpose  of  avoid- 
ing rapids  in  rivers,  or  to  connect  the  Great  Lakes.  One 
of  the  largest  of  these  is  the  canal  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  be- 
tween Lake  Superior  on  the  one  hand,  and  Lakes  Huron 
and  Michigan  on  the  other.  The  greatest  canal  ever  un- 
dertaken is  the  Panama  Canal  now  in  course  of  construc- 
tion by  the  United  States.  It  will  be  of  world-wide 
importance. 

Steam   railways    revolutionized    transportation.       They 

quickly  displaced  most  of  the  older  turnpikes  and  canals, 

and  made  travel  rapid  beyond  the  imagination 

-^  Railroads 

of  the  people  of  earlier  times.  They  soon  cov- 
ered the  country  with  a  network  of  tracks  until,  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  the  railways  of  the  United  States  would  encircle 
the  globe  eight  and  a  half  times,  without  counting  second 
tracks  and  sidetracks.  The  importance  of  the  railroads  in 
the  building  of  our  nation  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  the  territory  we  now  occupy  could  never 
have  been  included  in  a  single  nation  if  it  were  not  for  the 
railroads  that  bind  together  its  widely  separated  parts.  San 
Francisco  and  New  York  are  to-day  as  close  together,  so 
far  as  ease  of  communication  is  concerned,  as  New  York 
and  Boston  were  in  Washington's  time.  Because  of  their 
great  service  to  the  country  in  this  way,  railroads  have  at 
various  times  been  aided  by  both  state  and  national  govern- 
ments. The  national  government  gave  to  many  states,  in 
early  times,  large  tracts  of  public  land,  the  revenue  from 


no  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

which  was  to  be  used  in  the  work  of  constructing  railroads. 

When  the  great  Western  roads  were  proposed,  Congress 

gave  about  100,000,000  acres  of  land  to  aid  in  the  enterprise. 

Railroads   are   not   owned   by    the  government  in  this 

country  as  they  are  in  some  European  countries,  but  by 

private    corporations    which     receive    charters, 
Government 

control  of  usually  from  the  states,  but  sometimes  from 
railroads  ^^iq  national  government.  Most  of  the  railroads 
of  the  country  have  been  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a 
very  few  powerful  corporations,  resulting  in  the  control  of 
the  chief  means  of  transportation  by  a  few  men.  Under  its 
power  to  regulate  interstate  commerce,  Congress  passed  a 
law  in  1887,  creating  an  Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 
This  commission  was  given  certain  powers  to  regulate  the. 
interstate  business  of  railroads.  Other  laws  enacted  in 
1903  and  1906  seek  to  prevent  railroads  from  discriminat- 
ing in  their  rates  and  otherwise  in  favor  of  some  persons 
or  localities  as  against  others. 

Another  most  important  step  in  binding  separate  com- 
munities together,  and  especially  in  bringing  isolated 
El   tri  communities  into  relation    with    larger   centers 

interurban  of  life,  is  the  recent  growth  of  electric  inter- 
lines urban  railways.  Many  little  communities  not 
heretofore  touched  by  steam  railways  have  been  brought 
into  the  stream  of  life  of  the  larger  community  about 
them.  There  was  a  time  not  long  ago  when  the  life  of  the 
farmer  was  a  Hfe  of  isolation.  He  had  few  of  the  advan- 
tages of  the  city,  and  seldom  came  into  intimate  contact 
with  the  life  of  the  world.  All  this  is  rapidly  being 
changed  by  the  building  of  electric  lines  through  the  rural 
districts,  together  with  the  establishment  of  free  rural  mail 
delivery  and  the  extension  of  telephones  in  the  country. 
By  these  means  city,  town,  and  rural  populations  are  being 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION 


III 


bound  more  closely  together.  The  people  mingle  more 
freely.  What  affects  one  for  good  or  ill  more  quickly  affects 
all.  The  whole  country  is  being  united  more  firmly  into 
a  single  community. 


A   Portion  of  the  Lakk  Front,  Chicago. 

Observe  the  railroad  yards,  the  piers  extending  into  the  lake,  and  the 

viaduct  over  the  railroads  to  the  piers. 

Compare  this  scene  with  that  in  the  illustration  on  page  14, 

The  question  of  transportation  in  cities  is  an  important 
one,  and  presents  difficulties  not  found  in  rural  commu- 
nities and  small  towns.     First  in  importance  is  Transpor- 
the  street  itself.     All  cities  have  a  department  ^^l^^.'^^^ 
of  government  to  manage  the  construction  and   street 
repairing  of  the  streets,  and  employ  engineers  who  under- 


112  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

stand  the  principles  of  good  street  making.  It  is  too  often 
true,  however,  that  street  commissioners  and  other  officers 
in  control  of  the  streets  are  appointed  as  a  reward  for 
political  services  rather  than  because  of  fitness  for  the 
work.  Too  often  large  contracts  for  street  making  are 
let,  through  political  favoritism,  to  men  who  are  more 
interested  in  the  amount  of  money  they  can  make  out  of 
the  job  than  in  the  welfare  of  the  community.  Such  con- 
tractors, and  the  officers  of  government  who  knowingly 
employ  them,  are  enemies  to  the  community. 

The  streets  are  for  the  use  of  the  people.  No  one  has  a 
right  to  block  them  unnecessarily  to  the  inconvenience  or 
Blocking  danger  of  others.  There  are  ordinances  to  pre- 
the  streets  yg^^  Storekeepers  and  others  from  blocking  the 
sidewalks  with  boxes  or  otherwise.  These  ordinances  are 
often  violated,  making  the  way  of  the  pedestrian  both  diffi- 
cult and  dangerous,  besides  making  the  streets  unsightly. 
In  large  cities  the  sidewalks  and  streets  are  necessarily 
crowded,  and  a  slight  accident  may  block  traffic  completely 
for  a  time. 

It  is  necessary  to  use  the  streets  in  cities  for  the  laying 
of  sewer,  water,  and  gas  pipes,  the  stretching  of  telegraph, 
telephone,  and  electric-light  wires,  and  the  con- 
struction of  street  railways.  Franchises  for  these 
purposes  are  granted,  on  two  conditions  :  first,  definite  serv- 
ices must  be  performed  for  the  people ;  and,  second,  the 
natural  use  of  the  streets  by  vehicles  and  pedestrians  must 
not  be  interfered  with.  Here  again  we  often  find  the  rights 
of  the  people  disregarded,  both  by  the  companies  which  ob- 
tain the  franchises,  and  by  the  government  officials  who 
grant  them.  Sometimes  franchises  are  carelessly  drawn  up 
and  give  away  privileges  to  companies  without  safe-guard- 
ing the  rights  of  the  people.     Sometimes  the  officers  of 


TRANSPORTATION  AND   COMMUNICATION         1 13 

government  dishonestly  and  un patriotically  give  away  the 
people's  rights  for  private  gain. 


Copyright,  1907,  by  Underwood  &=  Underwood,  New  York. 

Transportation  in  a  Large  City. 

Life  in  cities  has  been  almost  revolutionized  by  the  devel- 
opment of  rapid  transportation  by  electric  trolley  cars.     In 
some  of  the  largest  cities  there  are  elevated  rail-  ^    . , 
ways,  upon  which  trains  are  rapidly  driven  by  transit  in 
steam  or  electricity  without  the  delays  that  are   "*^®^ 
necessary  in  surface  transportation.     In  New  York   and 
Boston  there  is  a  system  of  underground  transportation. 


114  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  regular  steam  railways  run  trains  a  few  minutes  apart 
between  the  centers  of  large  cities  and  the  suburbs.  In 
Chicago  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  alone  carries  annually 
about  1 5,000,000  suburban  passengers.  The  elevated  roads 
of  New  York  carry  about  235,000,000  passengers  each  year. 
In  Boston  the  consolidated  lines  carry  over  200,000,000 
passengers  annually. 

The  city  railways  are  owned  and  operated  by  private  cor- 
porations under  franchises.  It  has  been  proposed  that  cities 
m  nt  should  acquire  possession  of  their  transportation 
ownership  systems  and  should  operate  them  themselves,  as 
of  raUways  ^^  done  in  many  European  cities.  It  is  argued 
that  the  service  could  then  be  made  just  as  good  as  the 
people  want  it,  and  the  fares  could  be  reduced  greatly. 
It  is  said,  in  reply  to  this,  that  if  city  governments  can- 
not wisely  and  honestly  control  the  giving  of  franchises, 
and  enforce  their  terms,  how  much  less  likely  would  the 
governments  be  to  manage  the  entire  business  wisely  and 
honestly. 

In  community  life  there  must  be  an  exchange  of  ideas 
as  well  as  a  means  of  transporting  goods  and  people.  The 
Communi-  manufacturer  must  know  what  kinds  of  goods 
cation  of  the  people  want  and  what  they  will  be  willing  to 
*  ®^^  pay  for  them.      He  must  also  know  where  he 

can  get  his  materials  for  manufacture  most  advanta- 
geously. In  a  large  country  like  ours  the  people  in  sections 
far  removed  from  each  other,  like  New  England  and  Cali- 
fornia, would  be  likely  to  develop  very  great  differences 
in  manner  of  speech,  in  dress,  in  ways  of  thinking,  and  in 
forms  of  government,  if  they  were  not  in  constant  com- 
munication with  each  other.  The  exchange  of  ideas  is  kept 
up  partly  by  means  of  travel.  There  is  a  constant  min- 
gling of  the  people  of  different  sections.,   We  have,  besides, 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         115 

our  postal  system,  the  telegraph  and  telephone,  and  the 
newspaper.  When  an  important  event  happens,  the  news 
of  it  is  at  once  flashed  to  every  part  of  the  land  and  within 
a  few  hours,  at  most,  is  laid  at  our  doors  in  the  columns 
of  a  newspaper. 

The  Constitution  gives  Congress  power  to  create  post 
offices  and  post  roads,  and  the  post-office  system  has 
existed  from  the  beginning  under  the  complete  Postal 
control  of  the  national  government.  At  first  the  system 
mails  were  usually  carried  on  horseback,  sometimes  by 
boys,  or  by  old  men  who  "  whiled  away  the  hours  by  knit- 
ting woolen  mittens  and  stockings "  along  the  way.  At 
the  close  of  the  Revolution  letters  were  sent  from  New 
York  to  Boston  two  or  three  times  a  week.  It  sometimes 
required  five  weeks  for  a  letter  to  go  a  distance  now  passed 
over  in  a  single  afternoon.  Out  of  this  small  beginning 
has  developed  the  extensive  post-office  system  which  we 
enjoy  to-day. 

In  some  countries  the  government  controls  the  telegraph. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  owned  and  managed  by  private 
corporations.     So  great  is  the  service  performed  Telegraph 
by  the  telegraph  that  it  is  hard  to  see  how  life  and 
could  go  on  without  this  means  of   almost  in-    **^  °°® 
stantaneous  communication  between  all  parts  of  our  own 
country  and  with  the  outside  world.     The  telephone  has 
had  a  similar  effect  on  the  life  of  cities  especially,  and  is 
now  aiding  in  bringing  the  farmer  into  connection  with  the 
city. 

Each  one  of  us  is  constantly  taking  more  and  more  of 
the  world's  interests  into  his  own  life  and  being  broadened 
by  it.  We  are  thinking  together  and  acting  together  as  a 
community  because  of  the  growth  of  these  various  means 
of  communication. 


l6  THE  COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Look  up  the  difficulties  of  travel  and  transportation  in  our  country 
in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  their  effects  on  the  life 
of  the  time. 

2.  Are  the  geographical  conditions  favorable  to  the  making  of  good 
roads  in  your  community?  What  is  the  condition  of  the  country  roads 
in  your  neighborhood  during  the  winter?  What  effect  do  the  road  con- 
ditions have  on  the  life  of  the  farmer?     On  the  life  of  the  town  peo|)le? 

3.  Who  has  control  over  the  making  and  repairing  of  the  country 
roads  in  your  community?  How  is  the  expense  of  keeping  them  in  re- 
pair met?  Do  the  farmers  work  out  their  road  tax?  Are  experienced 
persons  employed  to  oversee  the  work  of  construction  and  repair? 

4.  Look  up  the  history  of  road  building  in  your  state.  Have  there 
been  any  state  roads  ?  If  so,  locate  them  on  the  map.  Is  your  state 
government  now  taking  any  steps  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  coun- 
try roads  ? 

5.  Make  a  report  on  the  history  and  influence  of  the  National  Road. 
Did  it  have  any  particular  influence  on  the  settlement  of  your  state? 

6.  Give  an  account  of  the  use  of  rivers  in  your  state  for  transporta- 
tion.   To  what  extent  are  they  used  now? 

7.  Do  you  know  of  any  river  improvement  going  on  in  your  state? 
By  whom  is  it  being  made,  state  or  national  government? 

8.  Make  a  report  on  the  work  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 

9.  Make  a  report  on  the  building  and  influence  of  the  Erie 
Canal. 

10.  Look  up  the  history  of  canal  building  in  your  state.  Have  there 
been  any  successful  canals  operated  there?  Are  any  of  them  still  in 
operation? 

1 1 .  Report  on  the  purpose  and  history  of  the  Panama  Canal.  What 
arrangements  did  our  government  have  to  make  with  other  nations  in 
regard  to  it?  Of  what  advantage  will  it  be  to  the  world?  What  special 
advantages  will  the  United  States  derive  from  it? 

12.  Report  on  the  early  history  of  railroad  building  in  your 
state. 

13.  If  there  are  interurban  electric  lines  in  your  neighborhood,  re- 
port what  influence  they  have  had  on  the  life  of  the  farmers ;  on  the 
prosperity  of  the  cities. 

14.  How  does  your  city  government  manage  the  building  and  re- 
pairing of  the  streets?  If  you  wanted  the  street  on  which  you  live 
paved,  how  would  you  set  about  it?  How  would  the  expense  be 
met? 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         117 

15.  Are  the  ordinances  respecting  the  blocking  of  sidewalks  observed 
in  your  community? 

16.  If  you  have  a  street  railway  in  your  community,  find  out  what 
the  terms  of  the  franchise  are  with  reference  to  the  use  of  the  streets. 
Also  with  reference  to  the  paving  of  the  streets  through  which  the 
tracks  run.  Are  the  people  getting  as  good  service  from  the  street 
railways  as  they  should?     If  not,  why? 

17.  Debate  the  question,  "Street  railways  should  be  owned  and 
operated  by  the  city." 

18.  Report  on  rural  free  mail  delivery  in  your  neighborhood.  What 
influence  does  it  have  on  the  improvement  of  the  country  roads? 

19.  Report  on  the  organization  of  a  large  newspaper  for  the  gather- 
ing and  di.stribution  of  information. 


REFERENCES 

The  Office  of  Public  Roads,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.C.,  has  issued  a  series  of  circulars  on  the  public  roads  of  the  differ- 
ent states,  giving  the  mileage  of  improved  and  unimproved  roads,  road 
laws,  etc. 

Some  of  the  state  governments  have  issued  reports  on  the  public 
roads  of  these  states ;  as  in  Indiana,  the  Report  of  the  State  Geologist 
for  1906  deals  with  the  Roads  and  Road  Materials  of  Indiana. 

Henderson,  "  Tlie  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  VI,  "Good  Roads  and 
Communication." 

Hart,  "  Actual  Government,"  chapter  XXVH,  "Transportation." 

Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  last  edition,  vol.  H,  chapter  CHI, 
"-Railroads." 

McMaster,  "History  of  the  American  People,"  I:  11-13;  40-54;  67-70;  H: 
553-557;  560-563;  HI:  462-481.  These  references  are  good  for  the  conditions 
of  travel  and.communiciHtion  in  the  early  iiistory  of  our  country.  Also  for  the 
National  Road,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Coast  Survey. 

Earle,  Alice  M.,  "Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,"  chapter  XIV,  " Travel, 
Transportation,  and  Taverns." 

Earle,  Alice  Morse,  "  Stage-Coach  and  Tavern. Days." 

Sparks,  "  The  Expansion  of  the  American  People,"  chapters  XII,  XX,  XXI, 
XXII,  XXIIT,  XXX.  An  entertaining  account  of  the  development  of  means  of 
transportation.  Chapter  XXII  deals  with  the  Cumberland  Road  and  the  Erie 
Canal. 

Wilcox,  "The  American  City,"  chapter  II,  "The  Street,"  and  chapter  III, 
"  The  Control  of  Public  Utilities." 

Fairlie,  "Municipal  Administration,"  chapter  XII,  291-307,  "Urban  Trans- 
portation."    Makes  a  comparison  between  European  and  American  systems. 

There  have  been  many  magazine  articles  in  the  last  few  years  on  good  roads 
railroads,  street  railways,  and  the  Panama  Canal. 


CHAPTER  XV 

HOW  THE  COMMUNITY  AIDS  THE  CITIZEN  TO  SATISFY 
HIS  DESIRE  FOR  KNOWLEDGE 

In  1607  the  first  permanent  English  colony  was  founded 
in  Virginia.  Sixty-four  years  after  its  founding  Governor 
Governor  Berkeley  reported  to  the  king  on  the  condition  of 
Berkeley  on  the  colony,  and  among  other  things  he  said,  ''  I 
education  tj^^nk  God  there  are  no  free  schools  nor  printing, 
and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have,  these  hundred  years."  A 
statement  like  this  from  one  in  authority  seems  strange  to 
us  now,  when  one  of  our  chief  causes  of  pride  is  our  system 
of  free  schools  and  our  busy  printing  presses.  It  is  a  good 
example  of  the  belief  of  despotic  rulers  that  much  knowl- 
edge on  the  part  of  the  people  is  dangerous.  It  is  true 
that  a  despotic  government  cannot  exist  in  a  nation  where 
the  mass  of  the  people  are  educated.  What  Governor  Berke- 
ley wanted  to  see  was  a  colony  of  loyal  subjects  of  the  king, 
contented  because  ignorant  of  their  rights  and  powers,  and 
without  ambition  to  extend  their  liberties  by  revolting  against 
the  government  of  the  king  and  his  officers. 

Fortunately  for  the  growth  of  a  free  and  self-governing 
people.  Governor  Berkeley's  ideas  were  not  to  prevail. 
The  people  of  Virginia  were  eager  enough  for  schools. 
The  New  though  geographical  conditions  hindered  their 
England  development.  Within  a  few  years  from  the 
founding  of  Virginia,  another  group  of  colonists 
founded  Massachusetts.    Here  a  law  was  passed  providing 

118 


EDUCATION  119 

that  in  every  town  of  fifty  householders  an  elementary 
school  was  to  be  estabHshed,  and  in  every  town  of  one 
hundred  householders,  a  grammar  school.  New  England 
grew  under  a  system  of  free  schools,  free  discussion,  and 
a  free  press,  and  because  of  these  thL^s,  one  hundred 
years  after  Berkeley's  time  became^J^nter  of  rebellion 
against  EngHsh  oppression.  ^^ 

We  must  look  first  to  tjpp^f amily  as  the  most  important 
arrangement  for  the  education  of  the  citizen.  If  education 
were  left  entirely  to  the  family,  however,  it  would  ^j^^  ^^^_ 
be  inadequately  and  unequally  provided.  A  iiyand 
large  proportion  of  the  citizens  of  America  are 
foreigners.  They  and  their  children  would  make  little 
headway  in  acquiring  the  knowledge  that  makes  them  in- 
telligent citizens  if  their  education  were  left  for  their  families 
to  accomplish.  The  children  of  wealthy  families  might  be 
highly  educated  by  means  of  books  and  travel,  and  by  the 
employment  of  private  teachers  at  home ;  while  the  children 
of  wage  earners  would  have  to  get  along  with  very  little 
education.  It  is  not  a  high  degree  of  education  on  the  part 
of  a  few  that  makes  a  republic  like  ours  great.  It  is  rather 
a  fairly  generous  amount  of  knowledge  permeating  all  ranks 
and  classes.  Since  the  community  is  to  be  the  gainer  by 
it,  the  community  must  afford  a  means  of  education  that 
shall  be  within  the  reach  of  all. 

As  was  stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  Massa- 
chusetts at  an  early  time  recognized  the  importance  of  a 
generally  educated  people  by  establishing  a  sys-  Education  a 
tem  of  public  schools.  Connecticut  made  a  fundamen- 
similar  provision  soon  afterward.  Other  colonies  our  govem- 
and  sections  of  the  country  were  slower  about  °*®^' 
providing  for  the  general  education  of  the  people, 
but   in   the   course  of  time  the   Massachusetts    way    has 


I20  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

become  characteristic  of  the  American  community. 
One  of  the  foundation  ideas  of  our  free  country  is  that 
there  shall  be  the  greatest  possible  freedom  of  thought  and 
the  most  widespread  information  among  the  people.  After 
the  Revolutionary  War,  when  the  Ordinance  of  1787  was  en- 
acted by  Congress  for  the  government  of  the  Western  lands, 
it  provided  that  ''  religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being 
necessary  to  good  government  and  the  happiness  of  man- 
kind, schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  be  forever 
encouraged."  When  new  states  were  created  out  of  this 
Western  land,  it  was  provided  that  each  should  reserve  one 
section  of  every  township  for  school  purposes.  States  ad- 
mitted after  1848  were  to  reserve  two  sections  of  each  town- 
ship. Thus  began  the  public  school  system  in  the  great 
West.  In  the  law  of  1906,  providing  for  the  admission 
of  Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma  as  the  state  of  Okla- 
homa, it  was  provided  that  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of 
all  public  lands  should  be  used  for  school  purposes. 

The  duty  of  education  falls  on  the  state,  and  not  on  the 
national  government.  The  state,  in  turn,  has  left  the 
Education  "letter  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  local  com- 
in  the  hands  munities.  For  this  reason  we  find  a  good  deal 
locli^^^^  of  variety  in  the  organization  and  management 
govern-  of  schools.     Usually,  in  rural  communities,  the 

™®^  ^  township    or    county    is    divided     into    school 

districts.  If  the  district  is  small,  it  has  but  one  school. 
Sometimes  the  towr^ship,  or  even  the  county,  constitutes 
a  single  district,  and  then  there  are  probably  several 
schools  under  a  single  management.  -In  some  cases 
the  school  business  is  transacted  directly  by  the  voters  of 
the  district,  who  assemble  at  stated  times  for  the  purpose. 
Usually  it  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  one  or  more  com- 
mitteemen or  trustees,  who  are  elected  by  the  people.     In 


EDUCATION 


121 


most  cases  all  the  schools  of  a  county  are  united  under  the 
management  of  a  board,  which  sometimes  con-  Township 
sists    of    the    several    township    trustees.     The  manage"  ^ 
board  of  trustees  looks  after  the  school  build-  ment 
ings,  employs  teachers,  and  often  selects  the  text-books  to 
be  used.     In  order  to  secure  uniformity  and  excellence  in 
all  the  schools  of  the  county  there  is  usually  a  county 
superintendent,  appointed  by  the  board  or  elected  by  the 
people,  whose  business  it  is  to  supervise  the  actual  work 
of  the  schools. 


A  Rural  District  School. 

Rural  schools  are  often  poorly  organized.     The  terms 
are  too  short.    Pupils  of  all  ages  and  all  stages  of  advance- 
ment are  grouped  together  in  one  room,  often   ^, 
in   the   same  classes,  and   taught  by  the  same  ization  and 
teacher.     This  defect  has  in  some  places  been  "^^"fg®" 

^  ment  of 

partly  overcome  by  consolidating  the  schools  of  country 
the  township  in  one  centrally  located  building,   ^^^®°^^ 
where    the    pupils    can    be    graded,    and    where    several 
teachers    can   be  employed    under    the    supervision  of   a 
principal.     A  single  township  high  school  is  often  secured 
by  this  method  of  consolidation,  although  the  separate  dis- 


122  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

tricts  could  not  support  one.  The  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
consolidation  has  been  the  distance  the  pupils  have  to 
travel  from  the  remote  parts  of  the  township.  This  diffi- 
culty has  been  met  in  some  states  by  providing  means  of 
conveyance  at  public  expense. 

In  cities  the  organization  of  schools  can  be  more  per- 
fectly effected.     The  large  number  of  children  makes  it 
possible  to  grade  them  from  the  primary  classes 

Cityschools      ^  ,        ,  .^  ,  ,         ,         ^,  ^  r     ^ 

up  to  the  high  school.  The  compactness  of  the 
population  makes  it  easier  to  supervise  the  work  of  all  the 
schools  alike  and  to  secure  unity  throughout  the  school 
system.  Better  buildings,  better  equipment,  and  better 
teachers  can  be  aflForded.  The  schools  are  under  the 
management  of  a  school  board,  the  members  of  which 
are  elected  by  the  people,  and  a  superintendent,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  board. 

City  school  boards  are  usually  given  wide  powers  in 
school  matters,  and  act  more  or  less  independently  of  the 
other  branches  of  the  government,  in  order  to  secure  free- 
dom from  political  influence. 

Conditions  of  life  in  cities  differ  so  much  from  condi- 
tions in  the  country  that  the  state  allows  cities  great  lib- 
State  ^^^y  "^  organizing  and  managing  their  school 
control  of  systems.  The  schools  of  the  smaller  towns  and 
education  ^^^^^^  districts  are  usually  controlled  in  their 
general  methods  by  a  central  state  authority.  There  is  a 
state  board  of  education,  and  often  a  state  superintendent. 
The  state  superintendent  is  chosen  sometimes  by  elec- 
tion, sometimes  by  appointment.  In  some  states  the 
text-books  used  are  prescribed  for  the  whole  state  by  the 
state  board  of  education.  In  some  cases  text-books  are 
furnished  free  to  the  pupils  at  the  expense  of  the  state. 

A  number  of  the  states  provide  state  universities  for  the 


EDUCATION 


123 


higher  education  of  their  young  men  and  women.     These 
universities  afford  not  only  a   broad  collegiate  state 
education  that  will  better  fit  any  one  for  life  in   universities 
the  community,  but  they  also  offer  special  training  for  the 
law,  for  medicine,  for  engineering,  and  for  other  profes- 


A  Consolidated  Rural  School  in  Indiana, 

Observe  the  large  number  of  children  in  attendance,  and  the  wagons  by  which 

they  are  carried  to  and  from  school. 

sions.  Attendance  at  the  state  universities  is  usually  free 
to  citizens  of  the  state  ;  but  so  excellent  are  these  institu- 
tions that  they  generally  attract  students  from  other  states, 
who  are  required  to  pay  tuition. 

While  education  is  thus  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  state, 
the  national  government  is  not  wholly  inactive 
in  the  matter.     We  have  seen  how  it  gave  a  work^orthe 
start  to  the  educational  work  of  the  states  by  national 
the  donation  of  tracts  of  land.     In  addition  to   ^°^^^^^^^ 
this  it   has   established  a    Bureau   of    Education,   at   the 


124  THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

head  of  which  is  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation. His  duties  are  chiefly  to  collect  information  on 
educational  matters,  to  publish  this  information  in  reports 
and  bulletins,  and  to  exercise  an  influence  on  educational 
movements  throughout  the  country.  The  national  gov- 
ernment maintains  military  and  naval  schools,  schools  for 
the  Indians,  and  schools  for  the  city  of  Washington. 
Y  The  cost  of  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States  is 
very  great.  They  are  one  of  the  largest  items  of  expense 
Cost  of  to  the  government,  amounting  to  about  $231,- 

education  ooo,ooo  annually.  Of  this  amount  $  3,000,000 
is  expended  by  the  national  government,  $44,000,000  by 
the  state  governments,  and  $  184,000,000  by  the  local 
communities.  This  amounts  to  about  $  1 5  a  year  for  each 
child  enrolled  in  the  schools. 

Why  should  the  community  expend  so  much  for  the  ed- 
ucation of  its  young  people  ?     Do  they  receive  this  edu- 
cation freely  from  the  community  for  their  own 

Why  the  -  1  -.        ^  .         ,.r 

government  advantage  alone .''  Community  hfe  is  never 
stands  this     one-sidcd.     The  child  is  educated  by  the  com- 

expense  .  ,         ,  r    it 

munity  not  that  he    may  o-et   more  out  of  .life 

(although  it  is  true  that  he  may),  but  that  he  may  be  able 

to  give  moi^e  to  the  well-being  of   the  community.     Our 

nation  is  annually  investing  millions  of  dollars  in  its  young 

people,  expecting  to   get  its  returns  in  greatly  increased 

efficiency  in  the  services  rendered  to  it  by  its  citizens. 

Training  for  citizenship  is  accompHshed  by  the  school 
chiefly  in  two  ways  : 

I.  Through  a  course  of  instruction  that  will  unfold  to 
How  the  the  pupil  his  various  relations  to  life,  that  will 
trains  for  ^i^e  him  a  certain  amount  of  information,  and 
citizenship  that  will  develop  his  powers  of  clear  think- 
ing.    We  usually  think  of  civics  and  history  as  the  two 


EDUCATION 


125 


subjects  intended  to  train  for  citizenship,  but  every 
subject  in  the  course  of  study  should  contribute  to 
the  same  end.  Language,  literature,  mathematics,  and 
science,  as  well  as  history,  are  intended  to  broaden  the 
view  of  the  individual,  to  develop  an  all-round  manhood 
and   womanhood,  to   cultivate   the   different   desires   and 


The  William  Clark  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

powers  in  such  a  way  as  to  fit  the  individual  for  life  in  the 
community. 

2.  The  second  way  in  which  the  school  should  train  for 
citizenship  is  in  the  life  of  the  school  itself.  The  school 
is  a  community  and  is  also  a  part  of  the  larger  community 
about  it.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  school  is  merely 
a  place  to  prepare  for  life.  It  is  life.  School  children  are 
doing  just  what  the  community  expects  them  to  be  doing 
during  their  time  of  hfe.  By  so  doing  they  are  contribu- 
ting to  the  welfare  of  the  community  as  well  as  receiving  a 
benefit  from  it. 

People  learn  to  do  things  by  practice.  All  the  principles 
of  community  Hfe  found  in  the  world  outside  xheprinci- 

of  the  school  are  found  also  within  the  school.  P^^^  of  com- 
munity life 
Here  are  grouped  together  a  nurnber  of  peo-  found  in 

pie  with  differing  desires  and  motives,  but  all  the  school 
possessing  certain  common  interests.     Here  are  probably 


126  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

represented  several  different  nationalities  going  through 
the  process  of  being  molded  into  Americans  by  com- 
mon instruction  and  by  association  with  each  other. 
Here  are  children  from  all  classes  in  the  community,  all 
on  an  exactly  equal  footing  before  the  laws  of  the  school, 
and  with  exactly  equal  opportunities  of  showing  their 
worth  and  winning  advancement  by  their  own  efforts. 
This  is  the  real  idea  of  democracy  that  we  are  trying  to 
realize  in  our  national  and  local  communities.  If  we  ever 
realize  it  perfectly,  it  will  be  largely  through  the  influence 
of  the  public  schools. 

In  the  school  is  found  the  necessity  for  industry  and 
productive  work ;  for  a  division  of  tasks  and  united 
action,  under  the  direction  of  teachers,  for  the  com- 
mon good.  Here  is  seen  the  necessity  for  organization 
and  government  in  order  that  the  greatest  good  for  the 
greatest  number  may  be  secured.  Here  more  or  less 
responsibility  rests  upon  each  member  for  the  welfare  of 
all.  Failure  or  wrongdoing  on  the  part  of  one  not  only 
brings  disaster  to  himself,  but  tends  to  disturb  the  harmony 
and  well-being  of  all.  Certain  phases  of  school  Hfe  tend 
to  develop  particular  qualities  of  good  citizenship ;  in 
athletics  courage,  decisiveness  in  action,  and  the  spirit 
of  square  dealing  are  emphasized.  And  so  in  the  life  of 
the  school  habits  are  formed  by  practice  that  will  work 
good  or  ill  by  being  perpetuated  in  the  life  of  the  larger 
community  outside  of  the  school. 

Education  is  not  only  a  privilege ;  it  is  a  duty,  because 
every  citizen  owes  it  to  his  community  to  equip  himself  to 
Education  render  the  best  citizenship  possible.  This  is 
a  duty  recognized  in  many  of  the  states  by  the  passage 

of  compulsory  education  laws,  requiring  every  child  to 
attend  school  during  a  certain  number  of  years.     In  some 


EDUCATION 


127 


cities  there  are  special  schools  where  methods  are  adopted 
to  keep  in  school  pupils  who  do  not  get  on  well  in  the 
regular  schools. 

As  we  pass  from  the  first  to  the  eighth  grade,  we  find 


The  Work-shop  of  a  Special  School  for  Boys. 

that  a  great  many  pupils  drop  out  each  year  for  various 
reasons,  and  that  only  from  five  to  ten  per  cent 
of  those  who  enter  the  first  grade  pass  into  the  sibiiity^^°°" 
high  school.     Of  these  not  more  than  ten  per  ^^  the  high 
cent  graduate.    While  the  average  cost  of  educa-  ^  ^^ 

tion  throughout  the  United  States  is  about  ^15  for  each 
pupil  enrolled,  the  cost  of  the  high  schools  in  cities  is  about 
$50  for  every  pupil  enrolled  in  them.  This  higher  education 
of  a  few  by  the  community  demands  in  return  greater  service 
to  the  community.  The  community  has  a  right  to  expect 
more  from  an  educated  man  than  from  an  uneducated  one ; 
more  from  a  high  school  graduate  than  from  one  who  has 


128  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

not  attended  high  school.  A  liberal  education  is  not  in- 
tended to  relieve  a  person  from  hard  work,  but  to  fit  him 
for  more  and  better  work  than  he  could  do  otherwise. 

We  have  given  our  attention,  in  this  chapter,  to  the 
public  school  system  of  our  country  as  a  means  of  satisfy- 
Other  ^"^  ^^^  desire  for  knowledge.  But  it  must  not 
educational  be  supposed  that  this  is  all  the  community  does 
institutions    ^^^  ^j^-^  p^^j-pogg^     There  are  thousands  of  private 

schools  scattered  over  the  country,  especially  in  the  cities. 
There  are  parochial  schools ;  that  is,  schools  managed  by 
certain  churches,  as  in  the  caseof  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
There  are  many  colleges  which  are  self-supporting,  or  derive 
their  support  from  private  funds.  There  are  schools  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  for  the  blind,  supported  by  the 
state.  There  are  thousands  of  libraries  all  over  the  country, 
many  of  which  are  public  libraries  for  the  free  use  of  the 
citizens.  These  are  a  valuable  ally  of  the  public  schools, 
and  are  sometimes  managed  by  the  school  board  in  cities. 
Many  of  the  states  support  free  libraries,  and  at  Washing- 
ton there  is  the  great  Congressional  library,  a  national  in- 
stitution. When  we  consider  these  countless  educational 
arrangements  of  our  country,  we  cannot  help  being  im- 
pressed with  the  strong  desire  for  knowledge  that  is  prev- 
alent, and  the  variety  of  means  that  are  provided  to  satisfy 
it. 

In  the  colonial  days  of  New  England  the  town  meeting 
was  one  of  the  greatest  educational  forces.  Here  the  peo- 
Freedomof  pl^  gathered  to  discuss  matters  of  common  in- 
speech,  of      terest.      Every  citizen  was  educated  on  matters 

the  press,  ,  , .      .  r»-„  .  .  ,  ■,    •    c 

and  of  of  pubhc  importance.      This  widespread  inior- 

assembiage  nation  is  important  in  a  republic  like  ours.  The 
love  of  meeting  together  to  discuss  public  questions,  or  to 
hear  them   discussed  by  well-informed   persons,  is  very 


EDUCATION  129 

striking  in  America.  We  have  only  to  compare  ourselves 
with  some  of  the  more  benighted  countries  of  the  world, 
like  Russia,  where  men  may  be  sent  into  exile  for  express- 
ing their  thoughts  too  freely,  where  public  meetings  are 
largely  forbidden,  and  where  no  news  may  be  printed  in 
the  newspapers  until  it  has  been  examined  by  government 


High  School,  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

officials,  to  be  thankful  that  our  Constitution  provides  thai 
"  Congress  shall  make  no  law  .  .  .  abridging  the  free- 
dom of  speech,  or  of  the  press,  or  the  right  of  the  people 
freely  to  assemble"     (Amendment  I). 


FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Find  what  you  can  about  the  school  life  of  the  child  in  colo- 
nial New  England;  in  colonial  Virginia. 

2.  Find  what  you  can  about  the  first  schools  in  your  own  community. 
How  did  they  differ  from  the  schools  of  to-day?  Length  of  the  school 
term?  Did  all  children  attend?  Were  they  private  schools,  or  public? 
Where  did  they  get  teachers?     How  well  were  the  teachers  paid? 

3.  What  does  the  family  do  for  the  education  of  the  children  that  the 
school  cannot  do?     What  does  the  school  do  that  the  family  cannot? 


130  THE  COMMUNITY   AND  THE   CITIZEN 

4.  What  does  your  state  constitution  provide  with  regard  to  educa- 
tion? 

5.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  schools  in  your  township  and 
county. 

6.  If  the  schools  in  your  community  are  graded,  when  and  why  did 
the  grading  take  place?  Show  how  the  graded  system  is  better  than 
the  ungraded  system. 

7.  Are  the  country  schools  consolidated  in  any  part  of  your  state? 
If  so,  how  does  the  system  work? 

8.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  describe  in  detail  the  organization  of  the  city 
schools.  Describe  the  board  of  education,  number  of  members,  term 
of  office,  powers,  etc. 

9.  What  are  the  qualifications  prescribed  for  teachers  in  your 
community?     How  are  the  teachers  selected? 

10.  Describe  the  work  of  the  state  board  of  education  and  that  of  the 
state  superintendent  in  your  state. 

11.  How  are  the  school  books  selected  in  your  state?  In  your  city? 
Are  they  free  to  the  children?  What  advantages  and  disadvantages 
result  from  free  school  books? 

12.  What  do  the  public  schools  cost  your  city?  Your  county?  Your 
state  ? 

13.  Compare  the  school  community  of  which  you  are  a  member  with 
the  community  outside  of  the  school,  as  suggested  on  page  125  of  this 
chapter. 

14.  How  does  the  government  of  your  school  differ  from  the  govern- 
ment of  the  city  or  town  in  which  you  live?  Why  the  difference? 
Would  it  be  wise  to  make  the  government  of  the  school  more  like  that 
of  the  city?  Give  reasons.  Look  up  the  ''school  city"  plan  of  self- 
government  in  schools,  and  report  your  opinion  of  it  (see  references 
below) . 

15.  What  are  the  compulsory  education  laws  of  your  state?  How  are 
truants  looked  after  in  your  community? 

16.  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  the  high  school  should  be  main- 
tained at  the  expense  of  the  community,  in  spite  of  the  small  propor- 
tional attendance  and  the  large  proportional  cost? 

17.  Make  a  list  of  the  educational  agencies  in  your  community  out- 
side of  the  public  school. 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "  Actual  Government,"  chapter  XXVIII,  "  Education." 
Forman,  "  Advanced  Civics,"  chapter  XLVI. 
Dewey,  John,  "  The  School  and  Society." 


EDUCATION 


131 


Henderson,  C.  R., "  The  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  XII, "  The 
Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System." 

Boone,  R.  H.,"  Education  in  the  United  States." 

Dexter,  E.  G.,  "  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States." 

Earle,  Alice  M.,  "  Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days,"  chapters  III-VI. 

The  following  articles  deal  with  civic  training  in  the  public  school : 

Shaw,  Albert,  "  The  School  City,"  in  Review  0/  Reviews,  December,  1899. 

Orcutt,  Hiram,  "  Discipline  in  the  Home,  School,  and  College,"  in  Educatio?i, 
vol.  18  (1898),  pp.  606.  614. 

French,  C.  W.,  "  The  Problem  of  School  Government,"  in  School  Review,  vol.  8 
(1900),  pp.  201-212. 

French,  C.  W.,  "  The  School  City,"  in  School  Review,  13  :  33. 

Flower,  B.  C,  "  Bulwarking  American  Institutions  by  Practical  Civic  Educa- 
tion," in  Arena,  May,  1905. 

The  National  School  City  League  has  published  a  pamphlet  on  the  School  City, 
"  A  New  System  of  Moral  and  Civic  Training,"  at  the  end  of  which  is  a  bibliography 
on  the  subject. 

The  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  and  also  the 
Reports  of  the  State  Superintendents,  or  State  Boards,  of  Education,  contain  useful 
material. 


The  Mckinley  High  School,  St.  Louis.  Mo. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

HOW  THE  COMMUNITY  AIDS  THE  CITIZEN  TO  SATISFY 
HIS  DESIRE  FOR  BEAUTIFUL  SURROUNDINGS 


In  one  important  way  the  growth  of  communities  has 
tended  to  destroy  the  beautiful  surroundings  of  man.     It 


View  of  a  River  Front. 
Notice  the  unsightly  sheds,  the  heaps  of  refuse,  and  the  smoking  factories. 

CivUization  is  a  misfortune  that  much  of  the  natural  beauty 
destroys  of  the  landscape  must  disappear  before  the  ad- 
beauty  of  vance  of  civilization.  The  forest  and  the  flower- 
nature  clothed  prairie  are  transformed  into  farms  and 
building  sites.  The  hills  are  cut  away  for  the  resources 
that  they  contain.     The  streams  are  lined  with  ugly  and 

132 


CIVIC   BEAUTY 


133 


noisy   factories,    and   clogged   with    refuse.     The   sky   is 
obscured  with  smoke. 

The  community,  acting  sometimes  through  the  govern- 
ment and  sometimes  in  other  ways,  may  prevent  a  great 
deal  of  unnecessary  destruction  of  the  beauty  of  _ 

/  1  r    Unnecessary 

nature.     The  national  government  and  some  ot   destruction 

the  states  have   forestry  bureaus,    which    have 

for  their  purpose  the  preservation  of  the  forests. 

Needless  pollution  of  streams  may  be  checked  by  state 


of  natural 
beauty 


Boulevard  on  the  Bank  of  a  Stream. 
This  stream  is  thus  made  a  most  attractive  feature  in  the  heart  of  a  large  city. 

laws,  and  their  natural  beauty  in  a  measure  preserved  by 
preventing  dilapidated  and  untidy  premises  along  their 
banks  in  cities,  and  in  some  cases  by  converting  their 
banks  into  parks.  Sentiment  may  be  aroused  among  the 
boys,  in  the  school  and  otherwise,  against  the  killing  of 
birds.  Much  natural  scenery  may  be  preserved  by  the 
creation  of  national  and  state  parks,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Yellowstone  and  the  Yosemite.     Niagara  Falls  is  now  in 


134 


THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 


danger  of  being  transformed  from  one  of  the  great  wonders 
of  nature  into  a  mere  sluice  for  the  turning  of  mill  wheels 
unless  the  government  can  be  induced  by  public  sentiment 
to  prevent  it. 

If  natural  beauty  tends  to  disappear  before  the  growth 
of  communities,  the  opportunity  for  art  increases.     Beauti- 
ful houses  and  imposing  business  blocks  make 

Community  ah-  r  i     i 

life  creates     their  appearance.     Art  galleries   are    founded. 

opportuni-  Relipfious  ore^anizations  and  institutions  of  other 
ties  for  art       ,  .     ,  ,  .  .  ,       ,  ..    , 

kinds    grace     the    community    with    beautiful 


^^£i^mMM 

^ 

I 

^^^^^ij 

'M 

A  Beautiful  Back  Yard. 
By  courtesy  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

churches  and  other  structures.  Schools  cultivate  the  taste 
for  beautiful  things,  and  the  people  are  taught  how  to 
enjoy  life  in  ways  that  they  could  not  if  they  lived  in 
isolation. 

The  place  to  begin  beautifying  the  community  is  in  the 
home.  The  citizen  who  is  careless  about  the  appearance 
of  his  own  home  is  almost  sure  to  have  little  in- 
terest in  the  appearance  of  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity.    A  home  that  is  unsightly  tajces  away  from  the 


Beauty  in 
the  home 


CIVIC   BEAUTY 


135 


enjoyment  of  all  who  see  it.  The  first  essential  to  beauty 
is  neatness  and  orderliness.  But  it  is  possible  to  do  more 
than  merely  to  keep  the  premises  clean  and  in  order.  Grass 
can  be  made  to  cover  bare  ground,  or  to  take  the  place  of 
weeds.  There  is  almost  always  a  spot  for  vines  afid  flowers 
to  grow,  if  it  is  only  in  window  boxes.  It  is  wonderful 
what  a  transformation  has  often  taken  place  even  among 
the  crowded  dwellings  of  the  poor  in  the  heart  6f  cities,  by 


School  Gardening  in  St.  Louis. 

The  introduction  of  vines  over  the  fences,  a  flower  bed 
in  the  small  rear  yard,  and  boxes  of  growing  plants  at  the 
windows.  The  practice  of  thus  adorning  the  dwelling  place 
is  contagious,  and  spreads  from  home  to  home,  and  from 
neighborhood  to  neighborhood.  One  well-kept  lawn  in  a 
neighborhood  is  followed  by  others,  until  whole  squares 
and  whole  streets  present  an  unbroken  view  of  beauty. 

It  is  wonderful  how  much  children  can  do  toward  mak- 
ing the  community  beautiful  in  this  way.     In  Cleveland 


136 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


there  is  a  Home  Gardening  Association,  working  chiefly 
through  the  school  children,  which  has  trans- 
formed home  yards,  school  grounds,  and  vacant 
lots  from  barren  and  disorderly  spots,  in  many 
cases,  into  beautiful  flower  and  vegetable  gardens.  This 
Association  early  learned  that  *'  the  easiest  and  surest  way 


The 

children's 

opportunity 


'■'4 

;  0~ 

A  School  Garden. 
Picking  and  crating  tomatoes. 

to  results  is  through  the  enthusiasm  of  youth."  In  most 
phases  of  community  life  we  usually  think  that  active  citi- 
zenship is  for  men  and  women ;  but  in  the  beautifying  of 
the  community,  in  which  a  high  type  of  citizenship  can  be 
shown,  the  children  may  take  an  active  and  prominent  part, 
and  are  doing  so  in  many  communities. 

It  is  appropriate  that  the  school  and  the  home  should 
work  together  in  this  matter.    The  school  buildings  scattered 


CIVIC   BEAUTY 


137 


throughout  a  city,  and  also  in  the  country  districts,  should 
be  centers  of  pride  in  their  neighborhoods  be-  Beauty  in 
cause  of  their  beauty.     Happily, 'communities  the  school 
are  beginning  to  realize  this,  and  the  architecture  of  schools 
is  improving.    Even  if  the  buildings  are  old  and  ugly,  their 
surroundings,  in  most  cases,  can  be  made  beautiful  and  in 


A  vVell-kept  Street. 
Notice  lawns,  pavements,  water  hydrant,  mail-box,  telephone  poles. 

this  the  children  can  have  a  part.  The  work  of  the  Cleve- 
land Home  Gardening  Association  began  with  the  improve- 
ment of  a  school  yard  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 

A  city  is  judged  by  the  appearance  of  its  streets  perhaps 
more  than  in  any  other  way,  unless  it  is  by  the  appearance 
of   its  homes.     The  eye  passes  naturally  from  Beauty  in 
one  to  the  other.     The  street  is  public  property,   t^e  street 
This  means  that  each  citizen  has  a  share  in  it ;  he  has  a 
right  to  its  use,  and  a  right  to  expect  that  it  will  be  kept  in 


138  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

good  repair  and  good  order.  He  also  has  a  share  of  the 
responsibiUty  for  keeping  it  so.  There  was  a  time  in  certain 
cities  when  each  householder  was  required  to  keep  the  street 
directly  adjacent  to  his  property  swept  and  in  good  order. 
At  first  this  was  done  by  the  householder  himself,  or  by 
his  servant.  Then  a  group  of  neighbors  would  unite  in 
employing  some  one  to  do  it  for  the  neighborhood,  or  for 
the  whole  street.  In  the  course  of  time  it  was  found  that 
the  work  could  be  done  better  and  more  economically  by 
placing  it  all  under  the  direction  of  a  central  authority,  and 
by  having  a  body  of  men  give  their  whole  time  to  it.  The 
R  s  nsi-  expense  was  met  by  taxing  the  householders, 
biiity  of  the  Now  that  the  care  of  the  streets  has  been  shifted 
citizen  from  the  individual  householder  to  the  govern- 

ment of  the  community,  the  householder  has  come  to  feel, 
in  many  cases,  that  he  has  also  shifted  the  responsibility ; 
but  the  employer  is  responsible  for  the  work  of  those 
whom  he  employs. 

In  city  communities  good  pavements  are  perhaps  the 
first  essential  to  beautiful  streets.  Holes  and  uneven 
Pavements;  places  are  unsightly  as  well  as  unsafe.  A  rough 
noise  pavement  also  adds  to  the  noise  of  a  city.     The 

desire  for  the  beautiful  may  be  satisfied  as  much  through 
the  ear  as  through  the  eye.  Noises  are  often  our  safe- 
guards against  danger.  This  is  the  excuse  for  gongs  on 
street  cars  and  fire  engines,  bells  on  bicycles,  and  whistles 
on  locomotives.  But  the  noise  in  most  of  our  large  cities 
is  unnecessarily  great  and  trying.  In  some  cities  ordinances 
exist  to  decrease  the  amount  of  noise,  as  where  iron  pipes 
must  be  wrapped  before  they  are  hauled  through  the  streets, 
where  the  shrill  whistle  of  interurban  cars  is  forbidden 
within  the  city  Hmits,  or  where  the  calling  by  hucksters 
and  newsboys  is  forbidden. 


CIVIC  BEAUTY 


139 


In  the  matter  of  clean  streets,  as  in  so  many  other 
things,  prevention  is  better  than  cure.  Refuse  is  often 
swept  or  thrown  into  the  streets,  and  paper  is  Littering 
strewn  along  them  that  should  be  disposed  of  in  ^^^  streets 
some  other  way.  Ordinances  sometimes  exist  forbidding 
such  unnecessary  littering  of  the  streets,  but  they  are  in 
the  class  of  regulations  commonly  disregarded.     In  some 


mH 

.■•'ta?--.                  -^^- 

'^ 

li 

-:-r'"~::-t^  *-^,^ 

c>^ 

mr^  *^-    -  - 

— 

^Bs^ii.  ^ 

^^^""^ 

A  Street  IN  St.  Louis. 

cities  boxes  are  provided  on  the  street  corners  to  receive 
waste  paper  and  other  matter.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
such  boxes  shall  not  themselves  be  unsightly. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  observing  persons  that  school 
children  are  largely  responsible  for  the  unsightly  appear- 
ance of  our  streets  from  the  scattering  of  scraps  of  paper. 
It  may  not  be  true  that  school  children  are  any  more  in- 
clined to  throw  scraps  in  the  streets  than  other  people.  It 
is  true,  though,  that  they  have  unusual  temptation,  as 
they  come  from  school  with  an  accumulation  of  papers  that 
they  no  longer  want.     Their  large  numbers  make  possible 


40 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


a  good  deal  of  paper  scattering  in  a  few  minutes.  If 
children  can  do  a  great  deal  toward  beautifying  the 
community  by  gardening  at  home  and  on  the  school 
grounds,  they  can  also  do  a  great  deal  to  prevent  an  un- 


An  Unsightly  Neighborhood. 

sightly  appearance  by  refraining  from  throwing  papers. 
Habits  formed  in  school  go  a  long  way  in  such  matters. 
Boys  and  girls  who  scatter  scraps  of  paper  in  the  school- 
room and  halls,  will  do  the  same  thing  on  the  streets  and 
in  other  public  places. 

Among  the  most  beautiful  objects  in  nature  are  trees. 


CIVIC  BEAUTY  141 

They  are  also  among  the  objects  that  have  been  most 
recklessly  sacrificed   by  growing   communities.   The  beauty 
Nothing  adds  more  to  the  attractiveness  of  a  of  trees 
village  or  a  city  than  shaded  lawns  and  tree-arched  streets. 
What  is  more  pleasant   than    a    country  road  lined  with 
beautiful  trees  ? 

The  trees  of  many  communities  are  suffering  from  the 
ravages  of  insects  and  parasites.  The  government  is 
doing  a  great  deal  toward  discovering  means  to  Destruction 
destroy  the  tree  pests,  and  to  acquaint  the  peo-  fah^)^©^' 
pie  with  these  means.  The  trees  also  have  trees 
enemies  among  men,  to  whom  they  would  contribute 
so  much  in  health  and  pleasure.  In  the  first  place,  men 
clear  away  fine  trees,  sometimes  necessarily,  but  often 
unnecessarily,  to  make  way  for  so-called  "  improvements." 
Magnificent  trees  are  sacrificed  in  order  that  an  ordinary- 
looking  house  may  be  built  at  a  particular  spot.  Often 
a  home  would  be  improved  a  hundred  fold  in  appear- 
ance, if  the  trees  were  left  and  the  house  placed  farther 
back  or  to  one  side.  A  great  deal  of  monotony  is  pro- 
duced in  our  streets  and  an  opportunity  for  a  display  of 
artistic  taste  is  lost,  by  building  our  houses  too  much  alike, 
and  all  at  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  street,  without 
regard  to  the  nature  of  the  lots  or  the  disposition  of  the 
trees  and  other  natural  features  upon  them. 

In  the  second  place  we  do  not  take  sufficient  care  to  re- 
place trees  that  die,  or  that  are  necessarily  cut  down.  In 
some  European  cities  it  is  required  by  law  that  every  tree 
that  dies  or  is  removed,  unless  removed  to  prevent  crowding, 
must  be  replaced  by  another.  Trees  are  of  comparatively 
slow  growth,  and  this  may  be  one  reason  why  householders 
hesitate  to  plant  them,  fearing  that  they  may  never  get 
the  benefit  of  them.     This  shows  a  lack  of  community 


142 


THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 


F^ 

r-  "--  .-^^    ■'  •'■  ?*:  ^'' 

L- ^ ^iai 

I^^F'                     .-F 1 

Tree  Mutilation  on  a  Country  Road. 


spirit.  Arbor  Day  affords  an  opportunity  for  children  to 
do  something  in  this  connection.  The  systematic  planting 
of  trees  on  this  day  not  only  helps  to  beautify  the  com- 
munity at  once,  but  is  a  splendid  lesson  in  citizenship. 

One  of  the  worst  kinds  of  tree  mutilation  is  that  which 
makes   way   for  telegraph  or  telephone  poles  and  wires. 

This  is  an  evil  that  ex- 
ists both  in  the  country 
and  in  the  city.  Many 
a  beautiful  street  or  road 
has  been  made  unsightly 
by  such  mutilation  of 
trees.  This  is  a  matter 
for  the  community  gov- 
ernment to  control ;  but 
the  government  will  not 
usually  act  until  the  citi- 
zens show  an  interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  trees. 

Telegraph,  telephone,  and  trolley  poles  are  in  themselves 
unsightly.  In  the  business  portions  of  cities  the  network 
Poles  of  wires  is  dangerous  in  time  of  fire,  and  this 

and  wires  j^g^g  \q^  ^q  their  removal  in  many  cities.  This 
has  been  accomplished  by  placing  the  wires  underground. 
Civile  beauty  has  strong  claims  to  the  removal  of  such  un- 
sightly objects  from  the  streets.  Public  sentiment  is  slowly 
being  awakened  in  regard  to  this  matter,  and  the  time 
is  coming  when  the  view  of  a  beautiful  street  will  not  be 
obstructed  by  lines  of  ugly  poles  and  a  network  of  wires. 

Another  means  of  disfiguring  our  streets  is  by  a  reck- 
less use  of  advertising.  Men  have  a  right  to  attract  at- 
.^     ,.  tention  to  their  wares  ;  but  thou2fht  should  be 

Advertise-  '  ^ 

merits  and     given  to  the  means,  the  time,  and  the  place  of 

doing  so.  We  allow  beautiful  features  of  our  com- 


billboards 


CIVIC   BEAUTY 


143 


munities  to  be  marred,  and  ugly  features  made  more  ugly,  by 
permitting  citizens  to  exercise  perfect  freedom  in  advertising 
for  private  gain.  Unattractive  signs  are  nailed  to  beauti- 
ful trees,  which  should  not  be  marred  by  any  kind  of  sign. 
Ugly  telephone  poles  are  made  still  uglier  by  the  same 
means.     Attractive  residence  streets  are  made  unattractive 


A  View  in  a  City  Pa 


by  huge  billboards  with  inartistic  signs  upon  them.  Even 
the  signs  on  business  blocks,  where  they  have  a  right  to 
be,  are  often  inartistic  and  wholly  out  of  harmony  with 
the  architecture  of  the  street. 

All  cities  have  their  systems  of  parks  and  boulevards, 
though  they  are  developed  more  fully  in  some  cities  than 
in  others.      Boston  has  15,000  acres  devoted  to  Parksand 
parks,  which  are  connected  with  each  other  by  boulevards 
boulevards,  and  include  a  stretch  of  ocean  beach.     Some 


144 


THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE  CITIZEN 


cities  have  preserved  in  their  midst  a  bit  of  natural  scenery 
to  refresh  the  eye.  In  some  of  the  larger  cities  spaces  are  be- 
ing cleared  of  tumble-down  buildings  in  the  crowded  portions 
to  make  way  for  small  parks  with  grass  and  trees,  flowers 
and  fountains,  which  may  bring  a  little  pleasure  into  the  lives 
of  those  who  seldom  enjoy  the  fresh  air  of  the  country. 


An  Unimproved  Corner. 
The  same  corner  is  shown  improved  in  the  next  illustration. 
By  courtesy  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

Such  is  the  little  park  at  Mulberry  Bend,  in  New  York, 
which  was  once  the  center  of  the  most  vicious  part  of  the 
slums.  Parks  and  boulevards  are  under  the  care  of  boards  of 
park  commissioners,  who  sometimes  also  have  care  over  the 
trees  of  all  the  streets.  Sometimes  the  trees  are  placed 
under  the  charge  of  special  tree  commissioners  or  foresters. 
Smoke  is  another  of  the  accompaniments  of  growing 
Prevention  communities.  "Smoke,  like  the  network  of  wires 
of  smoke  jj^  ^\^q  streets,  has  been  assumed  to  be  a  neces- 
sary sign  of  material  prosperity.     As  the  wires  are  dis- 


CIVIC   BEAUTY 


145 


appearing  beneath  the  surface  of  the  streets,  it  is  also 
being  found  that  clouds  of  black  smoke  are  not  necessary 
to  industry.  A  few  large  cities  have  earnestly  determined 
to  be  free  from  the  smoke,  ordinances  have  been  passed 
and  enforced  against  it,  and  the  beauty  of  the  com- 
munities has  been  greatly  increased  as  a  result 


A  Corner  Improved. 

The  same  as  in  the  preceding  illustration. 

By  courtesy  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

Ugly  features  of  community  life  have  been  mentioned 
only  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  our  communities  are  doing 
more  to-day  than  ever  before  to  get  rid  of  them.  . 

There  is  a  steady  improvement  in  the  character  for  beauty 
of  the  architecture  in  our  cities.     The  people  of  ^^  growing 

^      ^  stronger  in 

small  means  are  living,  not  only  in  more  com-  our  com- 
fortable   homes,   but  in    more    beautiful   ones.   "^"'^^^^^^ 
Their  taste  for  beauty  and  refinement  is  steadily  growing. 
The  streets  are  constantly  becoming  more  pleasant  to  look 
upon.     Art  museums  are  being  established  in  increasing 


146  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

numbers.  Civic  Improvement  Associations,  and  other 
organizations  for  the  beautifying  of  communities,  exist  in 
almost  every  city  and  town.  Local,  state,  and  national 
governments  are  doing  more  than  ever  before  to  provide 
the  people  with  the  opportunity  to  satisfy  more  fully  their 
desire  for  beautiful  surroundings.  But  there  is  still  much 
to  be  accomplished  in  this  direction,  and  its  accomplish- 
ment depends  on  the  citizens  of  the  present  and  the 
future. 

The  improvement  in  the  surroundings  of  the  people  is 
bound  to  produce  a  better  citizenship.  Men  and  women 
Beautiful  ^^^^  their  spirits,  become  depressed,  when  their 
surround-  surroundings  are  unpleasant.  They  lose  hope 
difce^better  ^^^  ambition.  Much  of  the  vice  and  crime  of 
citizen-  large  cities  is  no  doubt  induced  by  this  cause. 
^  *^  One  of  the  first  steps  toward  transforming  men 

and  women  into  good  citizens,  who  will  contribute  to  the 
welfare  of  the  community,  is  to  give  them  pleasant 
surroundings. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Has  any  natural  scenery  been  destroyed  by  the  growth  of  your 
community?     Was  it  altogether  necessary? 

2.  Is  anything  being  done  in  your  community  to  prevent  unneces- 
sary destruction  of  natural  beauty  ? 

3.  What  relation  has  the  killing  of  birds  to  civic  beauty? 

4.  Report  on  the  use  of  Niagara  Falls  as  a  power  for  industrial  pur- 
poses. What  is  being  done  to  preserve  this  natural  wonder?  Do  you 
think  that  the  usefulness  of  the  Falls  in  industry  justifies  the  destruction 
of  their  beauty? 

5.  Is  your  community  notable  for  its  beautiful  homes?  In  what 
sections  of  the  community  is  the  greatest  care  taken  in  this  respect? 
Why  is  it? 

6.  Observe  the  premises  of  the  homes  in  your  neighborhood,  begin- 
ning with  your  own,  with  reference  to  the  care  of  the  lawn ;  growth  of 
weeds ;  the  accumulation  of  rubbish  ;  the  neatness  of  the  back  yards ; 


CIVIC   BEAUTY  147 

the  growth  of  flowers;  the  care  of  the  streets  and  alleys  adjoining. 
Make  a  report  of  conditions,  and  suggest  improvements. 

7.  Let  each  pupil  report  a  plan  to  improve  the  appearance  of  his 
own  yard.     Begin  a  systematic  movement  to  put  these  plans  into  effect. 

8.  Is  your  school  as  beautiful  as  it  could  be  in  the  appearance  of  the 
yard?  In  the  care  of  the  halls  and  rooms?  Could  you  do  anything  to 
improve  it?  Do  the  people  in  the  neighborhood  take  pride  in  the 
school  building  and  grounds  ?     If  not,  how  could  they  be  made  to  do  so  ? 

9.  Are  the  streets  in  your  community  beautiful?  If  not,  what  are 
their  defects?     If  they  are,  what  constitutes  their  beauty? 

10.  Report  on  the  character  of  the  pavements  with  reference  to  their 
appearance. 

11.  What  noises  in  your  community  are  unnecessary?  How  could 
they  be  lessened? 

12.  What  is  done  in  your  community  to  keep  the  streets  clean? 
What  ordinances  exist  on  this  matter?  Are  they  observed  and  en- 
forced ? 

13.  Observe  the  trees  in  your  neighborhood,  in  streets  and  lawns, 
and  report  on  their  general  condition  and  appearance.  Is  care  taken 
to  preserve  beautiful  trees?  Is  anything  being  done  in  a  systematic 
way  in  tree  planting?  Are  the  trees  being  mutilated  or  destroyed  by 
linemen  or  otherwise?  Is  any  attempt  being  made  to  create  a  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  the  trees?  Does  the  city  government  provide  any  one 
to  care  for  the  trees  in  the  streets? 

14.  Make  a  report  on  street  advertisements  in  your  neighborhood. 
Observe  whether  the  appearance  of  the  streets,  or  of  private  property, 
is  marred  by  such  advertisements. 

15.  Report  on  the  parks  and  boulevards  of  your  community.  De- 
scribe their  points  of  beauty.  Are  they  used  by  the  people  freely? 
How  are  they  managed? 

16.  What  societies  exist  in  your  community  to  improve  its  appear- 
ance?    How  do  they  work? 

17.  Is  your  community  active  at  the  present  time  in  beautifying  the 
streets  and  public  places  by  the  erection  of  statuary,  monuments,  foun- 
tains, and  in  other  ways? 

18.  Is  the  architecture  of  your  community  improving  in  character? 
Observe  residences,  business  blocks,  churches,  schools,  and  public 
buildings. 

19.  Select  one  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  in  your  community 
and  give  a  detailed  description  of  it. 

20.  Is  anything  being  done  in  your  community  to  cultivate  a  taste 
for  beautiful  surroundings  among  those  who  live  in  the  tenements,  or 
in  the  poorer  quarters  of  the  city? 


148  THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

2 1 .  Write  an  essay  on  the  relation  between  civic  beauty  and  good 
citizenship. 

REFERENCES 

Zueblin,  "  A  Decade  of  Civic  Development." 
Robinson,  "  The  Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities." 
Robinson,  "  Modern  City  Art." 
Eggleston,  N.  H.,  "Home  and  Its  Surroundings." 
Henderson,  "The  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  XIV,  "Social- 
ized Beauty  and  Recreation." 

The  magazine  literature  on  the  subject  of  civic  beauty  is  abundant. 
The  following  are  a  few  good  references  : 

"  For  Civic  Improvement:  What  to  do,  and  How  to  do  it,"  Century  Magazine, 
64 :  43. 

"  Art  in  Public  Works,"  Century  Magazine,  64  :  912. 

"Municipal  Art,"  Chautauquan,  36:516;  "Street  Decoration,"  Chautauquan, 
40:  60. 

"  The  Uplift  in  American  Cities,"  World's  Work,  8  :  4963. 

"  The  Town  Beautiful,"  Outlook,  77  :  35,  543. 

"Public  Art  in  American  Cities,"  Municipal  Affairs,  2:1;  "Civic  Architec- 
ture," Municipal  Affairs,  2:  46;  "  Municipal  Sculpture,"  Municipal  Affairs,  2  :  73. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

HOW  THE  COMMUNITY  AIDS  THE  CITIZEN  TO  SATISFY 
HIS    RELIGIOUS   DESIRE 

The  community  described  in  the  first  chapter  grew  around 
the  college  and  the  church,  which  occupied  the  most 
important  place  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  settlers. 
Every  one  of  those  first  families  was  deeply  religious. 
The  simple  social  life  of  the  early  days  centered  chiefly  in 
the  church.  The  only  government  of  the  village,  for  a 
brief  period,  was  the  government  of  the  church  organiza- 
tion. These  people  were  of  Puritan  descent  and  principles, 
and  they  remind  us  of  the  colonists  of  New  England. 

The  love  of  religion  has  played  a  very  important  part 
in  the  history  of  the  world.     Perhaps  no  other  motive  has 
driven  men  to  action  more  powerfully  than  this.   Religion 
In  the  history  of  our  land  this  is  shown.     The  ^^s  been  a 

1      .         r  1  1       r         J-    ■  >        powerful 

desire  tor  the  spread  of  religion  was  not  the  motive  in 
least  of  the  motives  that  brought  Columbus  to  history 
America.  The  Spaniards  made  their  conquests  in  the 
name  of  religion,  and  they  established  missions  wherever 
they  went.  The  priests  led  the  way  in  the  French  explora- 
tion and  settlement  of  America.  The  Pilgrims  came  to 
Plymouth  to  find  freedom  of  religious  worship,  and  all 
through  the  history  of  the  various  colonies  religious  ques- 
tions had  an  important  influence. 

When  the  English  colonies  in  America  were  founded, 
England,  like  most  other  countries  of  the  world,  had  a 
state  religion  and  a  state  church.     That  is,  the  government 

149 


I50  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

prescribed  what  form  of  religion  the  people  must  observe. 
The  Puritans  came  to  America  because  they  could  not 
conform  to  these  requirements,  and  desired  liberty  to  wor- 
ship as  they  beheved  to  be  right.  We  might  think  that, 
since  they  desired  religious  liberty  for  them- 
intoSramie  sclvcs,  when  they  came  to  America  they  should 
in  colonial  have  granted  equal  liberty  to  others  who  came  to 
their  settlements.  Such  was  not  the  case.  The 
Puritans  were  intolerant  of  all  who  differed  from  them  in  re- 
ligious matters.  They  hated  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  They  drove  the  Quakers  away 
from  their  settlements,  and  even  put  some  of  them  to  death. 
Roger  WilHams  was  driven  out  from  Massachusetts  partly 
because  of  his  religious  views.  The  Roman  Catholics,  the 
Quakers,  and  the  EpiscopaHans  were  about  as  intolerant 
of  the  Puritans  and  of  each  other  as  the  Puritans  were  of 
them.  It  was  considered  a  remarkable  thing  when  Mary- 
land was  founded  by  Roman  Cathohcs  and  Protestants  to- 
together,  and  that  they  lived  side  by  side  in  harmony. 

In  most  of  the  colonies  there  was  a  very  close  relation 
between  the  church  and  the  government,  as  there  was  in 
The  relation  England,  although  it  was  not  always  the  Church 
churchman/  ^^  England  that  was  recognized  in  the  colonies, 
the  govern-  In  some  colonies  no  one  could  enjoy  full  politi- 
^loniai  ^^^  rights,  such  as  the  right  to  vote  and  to  hold 
times  office,  except  members  of  the  church  officially 

recognized  in  the  colony.  In  New  England  the  ministers 
were  usually  the  most  influential  men  in  the  affairs  of  gov- 
ernment. Many  of  the  laws  were  taken  directly  from  the 
Bible,  and  men  were  tried  in  the  courts  and  punished  for 
violation  of  commonly  accepted  religious  beliefs,  as  for 
breaking  the  Sabbath  or  swearing.  Thus  in  various  ways 
the  government  controlled  the  religious  life  of  the  people. 


GOVERNMENT   AND    RELIGION  151 

After  the  Revolution  the  connection  between  the  church 
and  the  government  gradually  became  less  complete.  Re- 
strictions on  the  right  to  vote  because  of  relisrious  „ 

*^  *=•  Separation 

beliefs  rapidly  disappeared.    With  the  growth  of  between 
democratic  ideas,  according  to  which  one  man  ^nd^the 
has  as  much  right  to  his  opinions  as  another;   govern- 
with  the  increasing  immigration  of   people   of  ™®^ 
different  nationahty  and  rehgious  belief ;   and  with  the  de- 
velopment of  means  of  communication  by  which  people  of 
different  sections  were  brought  into  contact  with  one  an- 
other, men  became  more  tolerant  of  each  other's  beliefs  and 
forms  of  worship.     It  came  to  be  recognized  that  a  man's 
religious  opinions  were  a  matter  for  his  own  individual  con- 
science, not  to  be  dictated  or  controlled  by  government. 

Accordingly,  when  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  adopted,  an  amendment  was  added  declaring  that 
"  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  estabUshment 
of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof  "  (Amend- 
ment I).  The  federal  Constitution  does  not,  however, 
prohibit  the  states  from  exercising  control  over  matters 
of  religion.  Some  of  the  states  continued,  for  a  time,  to 
require  religious  qualifications  for  voting.  Some  re- 
fused to  accept  testimony  in  the  courts  from  persons  who 
denied  the  existence  of  God.  In  a  few  cases  churches 
have  received  aid  from  the  state.  Nevertheless,  most 
state  constitutions  now  prohibit  governmental  support  of 
churches,  although  it  is  customary  for  state  governments 
to  exempt  from  taxation  the  property  of  churches. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787,  in  providing  for  the  first  gov- 
ernment of  the  Northwest  Territory,  said,  **  Religion,  mo- 
rality, and  education  being  necessary  to  good  government 
and  the  happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means 
of  education  shall  forever  be  encouraged."     Religion  and 


152  THE  COxMMUNITY  AND  THE   CITIZEN 

education  are  here  coupled  together  and  recognized  as 
The  attitude  two  of   the  greatest  influences  in  the  progress 

of  our  Qf   a   nation.     A  man's    beliefs   have   much  to 

government  .,,.  t,.  ,.. 

toward  do  With  his  conduct.     His  rehgion   consists  of 

religion  j^jg  attitude,  not  only  toward  God,  but  also 
toward  his  fellow-men.  It  teaches  him  to  love  his  neigh- 
bor as  himself,  and  to  do  unto  others  as  he  would  be  done 
by.  If  all  men  did  these  things,  we  should  have  better 
communities  and  better  citizenship.  But  so  far  as  our 
government  is  concerned,  its  attitude  toward  the  rehgious 
life  of  the  citizen  is  merely  to  allow  the  greatest  possible 
personal  liberty  in  the  matter,  and  to  offer  the  fullest  op- 
portunity for  rehgious  influences  to  develop  the  qualities  of 
good  citizenship. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  great  historical  events  in  the  world- 
that  were  due  to  religious  causes. 

2.  Let  individual  pupils  make  reports  on  the  following  topics: 
a.   The  religious  life  of  the  Puritans  in  New  England. 

d.    The  story  of  the  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania. 

c.  The  story  of  Roger  Williams  and  Anne  Hutchinson. 

d.  Religious  toleration  in  Maryland. 

e.  The  relation  between  the  church  and  the  government  in  colonial 
Massachusetts. 

3.  What  can  you  find  about  the  religious  life  of  your  own  community 
in  the  early  days  ? 

4.  What  different  religious  sects  or  denominations  are  represented 
in  your  community  to-day?  What  other  religious  organizations  are 
there  besides  the  churches?     What  do  they  do  for  the  community? 

5.  Are  there  any  schools,  hospitals,  or  other  institutions  in  your  com- 
munity supported  by  religious  organizations? 

6.  What  does  the  constitution  of  your  state  say  on  the  subject  oi 
religion  ? 

REFERENCES 

Howe,  Daniel  Waite,  "  The  Puritan  Republic." 
Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapter  XXIX.  ' 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

WHAT  THE  COMMUNITY  DOES  FOR  THOSE  WHO  CANNOT 
OR  WILL  NOT  CONTRIBUTE  TO  ITS  PROGRESS 

There  are  three  classes  of  persons  who  contribute  noth- 
ing to  the  advancement  of  the  community.  The  first  class 
consists  of  those  who  are  physically  or  mentally  unable  to 
do  so,  a  class  known  as  defectives.  The  sec-  Defectives, 
ond  class  consists  of  those  who,  though  physi-  and^deiin?' 
cally  able  to  do  something,  are,  nevertheless,  not  quents 
self-supporting,  and  depend  on  the  community  to  support 
them.  These  are  called  dependents.  The  third  class  con- 
sists of  those  who  live  in  positive  violation  of  the  law 
of  the  community.  These  are  criminals.  These  three 
classes  of  people  have  to  be  taken  account  of  in  every  com- 
munity, and  if  they  cannot  be  made  to  contribute  to  the 
common  welfare,  they  must  at  least  be  prevented  from 
doing  harm. 

There  was  a  time  in  the  development  of  mankind  when 
the  physically  defective  —  the  blind,  the  crippled,  the  hope- 
lessly ill,  and  the  aged  —  were  such  a  serious  burden  to 
the  community  that  it  was  considered  necessary  Treatment 
to  put  them  to  death.  This  was  a  time  when  °essbvthe~ 
the  very  existence  of  the  community  depended  uncivilized 
on  the  physical  strength  of  its  members.  If  a  man  was 
not  a  fighter  and  a  food  getter,  he  endangered  the  exist- 
ence of  his  fellows.  He  had  to  be  fed  from  the  hard- 
earned  stores  of  the  others,  and  had  to  be  defended 
against   enemies.     Many   savage  tribes  put  to   death   the 

153 


154  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

hopelessly  sick,  the  aged,  and  the  crippled.  The  an- 
cient Spartans  exposed  sickly  children  to  die  upon  the 
mountains. 

As  men  have  become  civiHzed,  as  sympathy  for  others 
has  become  stronger,  and  as  it  has  become  easier  to  sustain 
life,  the  weak  and  the  helpless  have  been  taken  under  the 
It  is  the  care  of  the  strong,  and  it  is  now  considered  the 
duty  of  the     (j^^y  Qf  ^^g  community  to  provide  for  those  who 

community  ,  •  n  i    i  r  ^  ^  T 

to  care  for  are  physically  unable  to  care  for  themselves.  In 
the  helpless  many  cases  the  defective  may  be  benefited  to 
such  an  extent  that  he  may  become  self-supporting,  and 
able  even  to  contribute  something  to  the  welfare  of  the 
community.  The  blind  and  the  deaf  and  dumb  may  be 
educated  by  special  methods  so  that  they  may  engage  in 
various  occupations  for  their  own  support  and  happiness. 
The  government  has  established  schools  and  asylums  for 
these  unfortunate  classes.  The  government  also  main- 
tains hospitals  for  the  insane,  where  they  are  not  only 
prevented  from  doing  harm  to  others,  but  where  they  are 
also  made  happier,  and  often  cured  and  restored  to  use- 
fulness. There  are  institutions  for  the  helplessly  crip- 
pled and  the  hopelessly  ill,  where  their  suffering  may  at 
least  be  alleviated.  There  are  also  institutions  for  the 
homeless  aged,  and  for  orphaned  children. 

The  work  of  caring  for  this  class  of  citizens  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  state,  not  of  the  national  government.  Local 
It  is  a  care  Communities,  and  especially  cities,  often  do  much 
of  the  state  fQ^  ^j^g  q^^q  ^f  their  defective  members.  But 
the  work  is  so  costly  that  it  is  chiefly  concentrated  in 
the  hands  of  the  state  government,  which  maintains  in- 
stitutions for  the  purpose  in  a  few  favorable  locaHties,  to 
which  the  sufferers  are  brought  from  all  parts  of  the  state. 

The  dependent  class  of  people,  as  distinguished  from  the 


CHARITY   AND   CRIME  ^  155 

defective  class,  consists  of  those  who  through  poverty 
are  a  burden  on  the  community.  Poverty  may 
be  due  to  physical  inabihty  to  provide  for  one's 
self.  If  this  is  the  case,  there  are  the  institutions  already 
mentioned  to  care  for  such  dependents.  But  the  poverty 
may  be  due,  in  some  cases,  merely  to  bad  management 
and  a  lack  of  foresight.  It  may  often  be  due  to  drunken- 
ness on  the  part  of  one  or  both  of  the  parents,  or  to  lazy 
and  shiftless  habits,  or  to  a  desire  to  live  at  the  expense  of 
others  rather  than  by  honest  effort. 

The  care  of  the  poor  was  at  one  time  almost  wholly  in 
the  hands  of  the  church,  and  the  church  still  does  a  great 
deal  to  this  end.  In  the  reign  of  Queen  EUza- 
beth  a  law  was  passed  by  the  EngHsh  parha- 
ment  requiring  each  parish  to  care  for  its  own  poor. 
Since  then  the  government  has  done  much  to  relieve 
poverty,  and  poor  laws  were  enacted  in  America  modeled 
after  those  of  England.  Poor  reHef  is  considered  a  matter 
for  the  local  community  to  regulate. 

Poverty  has  always  appealed  to  the  sympathies  of 
people,  and  voluntary  efforts  on  the  part  of  individuals 
and  societies  to  relieve  it  have  long  been  com-  r^^^  danger 
mon.  Until  recently  this  relief  has  been  offered  inunorgan- 
in  an  altogether  disorganized  way,  each  giver  ^^®  ^  ^"*^ 
giving  as  he  &aw  fit,  without  knowledge  of  the  real  needs 
of  the  applicant  for  relief,  or  of  what  other  persons 
and  societies  were  doing.  This  kind  of  charity  has  some- 
times done  more  harm  than  good.  It  may,  indeed,  often  re- 
lieve the  suff erin  g  of  the  really  needy  ;  but  it  has  j  ust  as  often 
encouraged  the  unworthy  to  expect  charity,  and  has  tended 
to  increase  the  dependent  class  instead  of  diminishing  it. 
There  are  many  people  v/ho  will  make  no  effort  to  support 
themselves  so  long  as  they  feel  that  others  will  support 


156  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

them.  Many  professional  beggars  make  a  good  living  by 
taking  advantage  of  the  sympathies  of  random  givers. 
During  a  certain  period  of  great  suffering  among  the  very 
poor  of  American  cities,  due  to  unusually  hard  times,  free 
eating  houses  were  established  in  the  hope  of  relieving  the 
situation.  The.  free  food  attracted  hundreds  away  from 
the  work  they  had,  and  greatly  increased  the  army  of  the 
unemployed.  Thoughtless  or  unwise  giving  may  make 
paupers  of  many  who  would  otherwise  be  self-supporting. 

In  nearly  all  of  our  large  cities  at  the  present  time,  and 
in  many  of  the  smaller  ones,  the  relief  of  the  poor  is  be- 
Charity  coming  more   systematic.     Charity  bureaus,  or 

organization  societies,  have  been  created,  which  seek  to  secure 
cooperation  among  all  the  charitable  organizations  of  the 
community.  They  investigate  the  worthiness  of  applicants 
for  relief.  They  expose  impostors,  of  whom  there  are  a 
great  many.  They  seek  to  remove  the  causes  of  poverty 
rather  than  merely  to  relieve  the  needs  of  the  poor  for  the 
time  being.  They  find  employment  for  those  who  need  it 
and  are  able  to  take  it.  They  wage  war  against  the  evils 
of  tenement  life.  They  encourage  the  unfortunate  by 
giving  them  better  opportunities  and  by  creating  in  them 
new  ideals  of  life. 

It  is  of  course  necessary  and  desirable  to  relieve  actual 
suffering  by  gifts  of  food,  clothing,  and  other  necessities. 
It  is  much  more  important  to  provide  an  opportunity,  and 
to  create  a  desire,  for  self-support  by  productive  work.  It 
is  better  for  the  unfortunate  individual,  for  it  gives  him 
greater  self-respect,  and  makes  him  more  independent ; 
and  it  is  better  for  the  community,  because  it  transforms 
those  who  have  been  a  burden  to  others  into  producers 
and  contributors  to  the  general  welfare. 

The  third  class  of  persons  who  contribute  no  good  to 


CHARITY  AND   CRIME  1 57 

the  community  is  the  criminal  class.     This  may  be  said  to 
include  all  offenders  against  the  law  and  order  Crime 
of   the   community,  the   enemies   to  the  rights  of   other 
people. 

The  method  of  dealing  with  criminals  has  changed  very 
greatly  in  the  progress  of  civilization.  Formerly  the  main 
idea  was  punishment,  or  retaliation.  It  was  Treatment 
"an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,  a  life  ^l"^^'""^^^ 
for  a  Hfe."  Well  into  the  last  century,  even  times 
in  our  own  country,  the  penalties  inflicted  were  often 
terrible.  Offenders  were  imprisoned  in  dark  and  filthy 
underground  cells.  Tongues  were  pierced,  ears  cut  off, 
and  marks  branded  upon  the  body  with  hot  irons.  Pris- 
oners were  placed  in  stocks  and  held  up  to  the  ridicule 
and  abuse  of  passers-by. 

At  the  present  time  our  ideas  of  the  treatment  of  crimi- 
nals are  very  different.     The  criminal  is  still  an  offender 
against  the  community,  and  he  is  still  believed  The 
to  deserve    punishment  of  some    kind.     Much  protection 

-1  of  the 

more   important   than    the    punishment   of  the   community 
criminal,  however,  is  the  protection  of  the  com-  and  the 

'  '  ^         .  .  reformation 

munity  against  any  future  crimes.     Two  ideas   of  the 

are  uppermost  in  our  present  methods  of  deal-  cnmmai 
ing  with  criminals.  The  first  is  to  place  them,  temporarily 
at  least,  where  they  cannot  harm  the  community.  The 
second  is  to  reform  them — or  to  cure  them,  for  crime  is 
now  considered  as  a  result  of  a  mental  and  moral,  if  not 
physical,  disease.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  very  worst 
crimes,  which  may  be  punishable  by  death  or  life  impris- 
onment, the  effort  is  usually  made  to  return  the  offender 
to  the  community,  in  the  course  of  time,  as  a  useful  citizen. 
Cruel  and  inhuman  punishments  have  been  abandoned. 
The  death  penalty  has  been  abolished,  even  for  murder. 


158  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE  CITIZEN 

in  some  states.  It  is  now  quite  common  to  imprison 
offenders  with  an  indeterminate  sentence  ;  that  is,  they  are 
sent  to  prison  for  a  period  the  length  of  which  will  depend 
on  the  conduct  of  the  prisoner  himself  and  on  the  inclina- 
tion he  shows  to  live  right  in  the  community.  Prisoners 
are  comfortably  housed  and  clothed,  and  are  given  whole- 
some food  and,  if  necessary,  medical  attention.  Where 
the  prisoners  are  illiterate,  they  are  often  given  instruction 
in  the  common  branches  of  education.  They  are  made  to 
work,  not  so  much  with  the  idea  of  punishment  as  to  teach 
them  habits  of  industry  and  to  instruct  them  in  some  man- 
ner of  making  an  honest  living. 

Greater  care  than  formerly  is  now  taken  to  prevent 
crime,  in  preference  to  punishing  the  criminal  after  the 
^jjg  crime    is    committed.     Youthful   offenders    are 

prevention  sent  to  reform  schools,  rather  than  to  prisons 
designed  for  more  hardened  criminals.  It  was 
once  the  custom  to  imprison  young  offenders,  guilty 
of  some  minor  offense,  together  with  older  and  har- 
dened criminals  guilty  of  serious  crimes.  The  result  of 
this  was  to  harden  the  younger  ones  by  association  with 
the  others.  In  a  few  cities  juvenile  courts  have  been 
established,  where  only  young  offenders  are  tried.  Those 
who  have  just  begun  their  criminal  career  are  often  not 
punished  at  all,  but  are  placed  on  probation ;  that  is,  they 
are  given  their  liberty,  but  under  the  eyes  of  probation 
officers,  or  "official  parents,"  who  look  after  them  and  aid 
them  to  get  a  start  in  life.  Many,  who  would  by  punish- 
ment be  hardened,  are  thus  led  to  become  good  citizens. 

The  regulation  of  crime  and  the  correction  of  criminals 
are  almost  wholly  under  the  control  of  the  state  govern- 
ments. What  is  considered  a  crime  in  one  state 
is  not  always  a  crime  in  another  state ;   that  is,  while  the 


CHARITY  AND   CRIME  159 

act  may  be  just  as  harmful  to  the  community  in  one  state 
as  in  another,  some  states  may  have  no  law  on  j>  ... 
the  subject.  Unless  an  act  is  in  violation  of  of  crime  by 
the  law,  it  is  not  legally  a  crime  and  cannot  ^  ^^t^*® 
be  punished  as  such.  The  same  crime  may  be  punishable 
in  different  ways  in  different  states,  because  the  kind  of 
punishment  is  determined  by  state  law.  It  would  be  well 
if  the  states  could  agree  more  closely  in  regard  to  what 
constitutes  crime,  and  how  it  should  be  treated. 

The   national   government    has   jurisdiction    over  some 
kinds   of   crimes.     Since   the    entire    government   of   the 
territories  and  of  the  District  of  Columbia  is  in 
the  hands  of  Congress,  this  body  defines  crime  ©f  crime  by 
in  these  places  and  fixes  its  penalties.    Crimes  the  national 

,     ,  ,1  government 

agamst  national  law,  wherever  they  are  com- 
mitted, are  punishable  by  the  national  government.  The 
accused  person  is  tried  before  a  federal  court  in  the 
state  where  the  crime  is  committed.  For  instance, 
violation  of  the  postal  laws,  counterfeiting  money,  or 
evading  the  laws  for  the  regulation  of  interstate  commerce 
are  crimes  punishable  by  the  national  government.  The 
national  government  also  has  jurisdiction  over  crimes 
against  the  laws  of  nations,  as  contained  in  treaties,  and 
over  piracy.  One  crime  against  the  nation  is  punishable 
by  death,  —  treason,  the  worse  crime  recognized  by  civilized 
nations.  The  Constitution  defines  treason  against  the 
United  States  as  *'  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering 
to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort"  (Art.  Ill, 
sec.  3).  In  order  to  convict  a  person  of  treason  there 
must  be  two  witnesses  of  the  treasonable  act  to  give 
evidence  against  him. 

In  order   that   no   injustice  may   be   done  to  innocent 
persons,  the  rights  of  accused  persons  are  protected  care- 


l60  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

fully  by  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a 
The  pro-  principle  of  law  that  every  accused  person  is 
the^rights  of  ^ssumed  to  be  innocent  until  he  is  proved  to  be 
the  accused  guilty.  Every  precaution  is  taken  to  secure  for 
him  a  fair  trial.  He  is  entitled  to  a  trial  by  a  jury  of  his 
fellow-citizens  in  the  locality  where  the  crime  occurred. 
The  accusing  witnesses  must  give  their  evidence  to  the 
court  in  the  presence  of  the  accused  and  he  is  entitled 
to  witnesses  in  his  favor,  as  well  as  lawyers  to  defend 
him.  He  may  not  be  compelled  to  testify  against  himself. 
These  are  a  few  of  the  careful  provisions  made  to  protect 
even  a  guilty  citizen  against  injustice. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  public  institutions  are  there  in  your  community  for  the 
care  of  defective  persons?  Are  there  any  private  institutions  of  a 
similar  kind  ? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  institutions  and  associations  that  you  know 
,of  in  your  community  for  the  care  of  the  poor. 

3.  Is  there  charity  organization  in  your  community?  Find  out  its 
methods  of  work. 

4.  What  does  your  local  government  do  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor? 

5.  Report  on  the  treatment  of  criminals  in  colonial  times.  (See 
McMaster,  "History  of  the  American  People,"  vol.  I,  pp.  93-102.) 

6.  What  reform  schools  are  there  in  your  state  ?  How  are  the  in- 
mates of  these  schools  dealt  with  ? 

7.  Is  there  a  juvenile  court  in  your  community?  If  so,  report  on  its 
work,  and  describe  the  work  of  the  probation  officers. 

8.  Debate  the  question,  "  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished." 

REFERENCES 

Henderson,  "  The  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  XV. 

Henderson,  "  Dependents,  Defectives,  and  Delinquents." 

Warner,  "  American  Charities." 

Wines,  "  Punishment  and  Reformation." 

Morrison,  "  Juvenile  Offenders." 

Forman,  "  Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XLIX,  L. 

Goodnow,  "  City  Government  in  the  United  States,"  chapter  X. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

HOW  THE   CITIZENS   OF   A   COMMUNITY  GOVERN 
THEMSELVES 

We  have  now  looked  at  the  life  of  the  community  from 
several  points  of  view.  We  have  seen  that  the  people  are 
striving  to  satisfy  their  desires  in  a  variety  of  ^^^  purpose 
ways.  We  have  seen  that  there  are  common  of  govem- 
interests,  and  that  the  welfare  of  one  is  the  wel-  ™®^* 
fare  of  all.  Yet  it  does  not  always  seem  so.  Men  do  not 
always  recognize  their  dependence  on,  and  obligation  to, 
others.  Sometimes  they  lack  sufficient  knowledge  to  do 
so.  Sometimes  they  selfishly  disregard  the  rights  of  others, 
as,  for  example,  when  a  man  persists  in  clouding  the  at- 
mosphere with  smoke  from  his  factory,  although  he  knows 
it  is  injuring  the  community ;  or  when  a  ra'ilroad  charges 
unjust  rates,  or  affords  inadequate  facilities  for  trans- 
portation. Consequently  we  often  get  the  impression  that 
community  life  is  a  Hfe  of  conflict  rather  than  of  harmoni- 
ous action.  Under  such  imperfect  conditions  there  must 
be  some  agency  that  is  more  far-sighted  than  any  individual 
can  be,  and  that  is  just,  to  secure  the  intelligent  working 
together  of  all.  Such  an  agency  government  is  intended 
to  be. 

The  first    idea  that  we    must    understand    about  gov- 
ernment in  America  is  that  it  is  intended  to  be  Govem- 

ment  the 

the  servant  of  the  people  and  not  their  master,   servant,  not 
When  it  be2:ins  to  act  contrary  to   the  will  of  t^®  master, 

1  .  1  n     .  .      1       r     1  of  the 

the  people,   it  goes  beyond  its  rightful  powers,   people 

i6i 


l62  THE   COMMUNITY   AND  THE  CITIZEN 

The  American  colonists  sought  their  independence 
from  England  because  the  English  government  in- 
sisted on  taxing  them,  and  otherwise  exercising  authority 
over  them,  wltkoiit  tJieir  consent.  In  1787  a  convention  of 
leading  men  of  the  country,  chosen  by  their  respective 
states,  met  in  Philadelphia,  and  after  four  months  of  dis- 
cussion laid  before  the  people  of  the  thirteen  states  a  Con- 
stitution, containing  a  plan  of  government.  The  preamble 
of  this  Constitution  emphasizes  the .  fact  that  this  gov- 
ernment was  established  by  the  people  to  do  certain  things 
for  them. 

The  simplest  form  of  self-government  is  where  the 
people  meet  together  and  make  their  own  laws.  Such 
Direct  and  ^as  the  town  meeting  in  New  England.  When 
representa-     the    community   grows    large,   it    becomes    im- 

tive  self-  .      i  i       r  i  •  •  11  -r-i 

govern-  practicable  for  jthe  citizens  to  assemble.  Then 
™®^t  they  resort  to  the  plan  of  selecting  certain  of 

their  number  to  make  their  laws  and  perform  the  other 
work  of  government  for  them.  This  is  representative  self- 
government.  The  representatives  of  the  people,  chosen 
by  the  people,  act/i^r  the  people. 

The  next  fact  about  our  government  that  we  must 
understand  is  its  threefold  character.  In  the  preceding 
The  three-     chapters  there  has  been   constant  reference  to 

fold  char-  local,  State,  and  national  governments.  Each 
acter  of  our  . 

govern-  of  US  IS  under  the  control  of  all  three.  It  might 
ment  seem,  at  first  thought,  that  we  are  greatly  op- 

pressed with  government.  We  must  remember  that  we,  the 
people,  are  our  own  rulers,  and  that  we  have  simply  found 
it  more  convenient  and  more  to  our  advantage  to  have 
three  groups  of  governing  machinery  than  one.  Each 
group  has  its  particular  work  to  do  for  us.  Let  us  now 
see  how  the  division  of  powers  is  made  among  them. 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         163 

The  first  division  of  powers  is  that  between  the  state 
and  national  governments.      When  the   Constitution  was 
made,  the  thirteen    states  were    already  in  ex-   j^.  .^.^^    , 
istence,  each  with  its  own  government  organized  powers  be- 
under  a  state  constitution.     Why,  then,  was  it  J^^a^and 
necessary  to    have   a  national  government    in   state govern- 
addition  ?     It  was  because  while  the  states  were  ™®"*® 
thirteen     separate     communities     in     many    particulars, 
they    were,    in     other     particulars,  only    parts     of     one 
community  with  certain    interests    common   to  all  alike. 
This  was  illustrated  in  chapter  XII  (see  page  94).     The 
union  of  a  number  of  states  under  a  central  government 
constitutes  a  federal  nation.     The  central  government  is 
called  \y\z  federal goverjiment. 

The  federal  government  may  exercise  only  such  powers 
as  are  granted  to  it  by  the  people  in  the  Constitution,  and 
these  powers  are  few  in  number.  The  powers  of  Con- 
gress are  enumerated  in  section  8  of  article  I  of  the  Con- 
stitution. All  other  powers  are  left  with  the  states.  The 
tenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution  says,  "The  powers 
not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  states  [see  Art.  I,  sec.  10],  are 
reserved  to  the  states  respectively,  or  to  the  people."  By 
this  arrangement  the  states  retain  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  governing  powers.  Where  the  national  government 
controls  our  conduct  once,  the  state  government  controls  it 
many  times.  The  state  government  protects  us  in  our  re- 
ligious rights  (chapter  XVII),  provides  for  our  education 
(chapter  XV),  determines  who  shall  have  the  right  to  vote 
(page  168),  prescribes  the  rules  of  marriage  and  of  family 
relations,  has  almost  the  entire  care  of  our  health  (chapter 
IX),  protects  our  property  (chapter  X),  controls  business 
relations  of  every  kind  except  where  foreign  and  interstate 


l64  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

relations  are  concerned  (chapter  XII),  and  provides  for  the 
prevention  and  punishment  of  crime,  except  in  a  very  few 
cases  that  come  under  national  control,  such  as  the  coun- 
terfeiting of  money  and  the  robbing  of  the  mails  (chap- 
ter XVIII). 

In  this  division  of  powers  between  state  and  national 
governments  we  see  the  American  love  for  self-govern- 
ment emphasized.  The  people  of  each  state  retain  for 
themselves  the  regulation  of  almost  all  the  details  of  their 
lives.  In  the  course  of  our  history,  however,  the  national 
government  has  gradually  extended  the  scope  of  its  powers 
by  a  broad  interpretation  of  certain  clauses  in  the  Constitu- 
tion. For  example,  it  was  by  a  broad  interpretation  of  the 
clause  giving  Congress  the  power  to  regulate  interstate 
commerce,  that  Congress  recently  enacted  a  pure  food  law, 
thus  protecting  the  health  of  the  people,  which  has  been 
considered  primarily  a  duty  of  the  state. 

The  second  division  of  the  powers  of  government  is  be 
tween  the  central  state  government  and  the  government 
Relation  be-  of  local  communities.  The  relation  between  the 
tween  state  local  government  and  the  central  state  govern- 
govem-  ment  is  somewhat  different  from  the  relation  be- 
ments  tween  the  state  and  the  national  governments. 

The  state  governments  are  in  no  sense  branches  of  the 
national  government.  State  and  national  governments  both 
get  their  powers  directly  from  the  people.  The  local  gov- 
ernments are  merely  branches  of  the  state  government,  and 
get  their  powers  from  it,  and  not  from  the  people  of  the  local 
community.  The  state  government  is  organized  according 
to  a  plan  laid  down  in  the  state  constitution,  which  \s  framed 
by  the  people  themselves.  A  city  government  is  organized  ac- 
cording to  a  plan  laid  down  in  a  charter ,  which  \^  granted  to 
the  people  of  the  city  by  the  state  legislature.     The  local  gov- 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         165 

ernments  have  for  their  work  primarily  the  carrying  out  of 
the  laws  enacted  by  the  state  government.  Their  duties  are 
chiefly  adrnmistrative.  For  example,  there  is  a  state  law 
against  burglary ;  but  it  is  the  local  officers  who  protect  prop- 
erty against  burglars  and  arrest  offenders.  Local  govern- 
ments are  allowed  some  law-making  powers,  especially  in 
cities  where  the  city  council  enacts  ordinances  (see  chap- 
ter XXII).  The  principle  of  the  division  of  powers  between 
state  and  local  governments,  however,  is  the  same  as  in 
the  division  between  national  and  state  governments ;  that 
is,  to  leave  matters  that  touch  the  life  of  the  individual 
most  closely,  and  are  of  purely  local  interest,  in  the  hands 
of  the  local  government  as  much  as  possible,  while  matters 
of  more  general  interest,  such  as  the  regulation  of  the  rail- 
roads and  matters  of  general  health,  are  regulated  by  the 
central  state  government. 

The  relation  of  the  different  governments  to  each  other 
and  to  the  people  is  shown  by  the  diagram  on  page  166. 

A  third  important  feature  of  the  organization  of  our 
government  is  the  separatioji  of  poivers  among  the  three 
branches  —  leofislative,    executive,    and  judicial.  ^^ 

^  »  '  J  Thesepa- 

The  laws  are  made  by  the  legislative  branch,  ration  of 
The  enforcement  of  these  laws  is  intrusted  to  gx^cutivT' 
the  executive  branch.     If  any  question  arises  as  and  judi- 
to  the  meaning  of  the  laws,  it  is  finally  settled   "^^  powers 
by  the  judicial  branch.     The  purpose  of  the  separation  of 
powers  is  to  prevent  any  one  man,  or  group  of  men,  from 
acquiring  too  much  authority  and  becoming  despotic.    The 
legislative  body  may  restrain  the  executive  by  refusing  to 
appropriate  money  for  executive,  purposes,  as  often  hap- 
pened in  the  colonies  ;  or  it  may  impeach  the  executive 
(see  page  221).     If  the  legislature  steps  beyond  the  bounds 
fixed  by  the  people  in  the  Constitution,  the  judicial  branch 


66 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE    CITIZEN 


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HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS    ITSELF         167 

may  declare  the  law  null  and  void.  There  is  thus  a  system 
of  checks  mid  balances  by  which  each  branch  of  govern- 
ment is  restrained  by  the  others,  thus  safeguarding  the 
liberties  of  the  people.  This  system  is  found,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  in  local,  state,  and  national  governments. 

It  is  a  principle  of  American  government  that  the 
people's  representatives  shall  be  chosen  by  the  people 
of  the  various  locaUties  from  their  own  number.  Represen- 
The  EngUsh  colonists  in  America  felt  that  they  *^*^g^^  ^^ 
were  not  represented  in  the  House  of  Commons,  the  people 
because  they  did  not  have  a  voice  in  choosing  ^l^^l^ 
representatives  to  that  body,  nor  did  any  member  districts 
of  the  House  come  from  America.  In  the  early  history  of 
Massachusetts  the  people  gradually  allowed  the  taxing 
power  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  few  men  called  the  gov- 
ernor's assistants,  who  held  office  fromr  year  to  year  with- 
out reelection.  One  day  the  people  at  Watertown  decided 
*'  that  it  was  not  safe  to  pay  moneys  after  that  sort,  for 
fear  of  bringing  themselves  and  posterity  into  bondage." 
Therefore  "  every  town  chose  two  men  [from  its  own 
citizens]  to  be  at  the  next  court  to  advise  with  the  governor 
and  assistants  about  the  raising  of  a  public  stock,  so  as 
what  they  should  agree  upon  should  bind  all."  This  idea 
has  become  a  settled  custom  in  the  United  States.  Each 
city  ward  elects  representatives  from  its  own  residents  to 
the  city  council.  In  some  states,  at  least,  each  township 
has  its  representatives  on  the  board  of  county  commission- 
ers. Each  state  is  divided  into  districts,  from  each  of 
which  a  representative  is  sent  to  the  state  legislature,  and 
into  other  districts,  from  each  of  which  a  representative 
is  sent  to  the  lower  house  of  the  national  Congress. 
Each  state  has  two  representatives  in  the  United  States 
Senate. 


l68  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  right  to  vote  for  representatives  in  the  government 
is  called  the  suffrage.  It  is  not  a  right  that  all  citizens 
The  suf-  possess,  like  the  right  to  life,  liberty,  and  prop- 
frage  gi-^-y      j^  jg  g,  privilege  bestowed  by  the   state 

on  those  who  have  certain  quaHfications.  These  qualifi- 
cations are  prescribed  by  the  state  constitutions.  Only 
in  one  case  does  the  United  States  Constitution  limit  the 
right  of  the  state  to  regulate  the  suffrage;  that  limitation 
is  found  in  the  fifteenth  amendment,  adopted  after  the 
Civil  War,  which  reads,  *'  The  right  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by 
the  United  States,  or  by  any  state,  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude." 

At  the  beginning  of  our  history  the  right  to  vote  was  lim- 
ited to  a  relatively  small  number  of  the  citizens.  These 
o  ai"fi  -  restrictions  have  largely  been  removed.  We  have 
tions  for  bccome  more  democratic.  But  there  are  still 
the  suffrage  gome  restrictions,  which  Vary  more  or  less  in  the 
different  states.  In  no  state  may  any  one  vote  who  is  under 
twenty-one  years  of  age.  All  states  require  a  residence  in 
the  state,  and  in  the  county  and  city  ward,  for  a  certain  time 
prior  to  voting.  In  only  four  states  do  women  have  the  right 
to  vote  at  all  elections,  although  in  a  number  of  states  they 
may  vote  at  school  elections,  and  in  a  few  cases  in  elections 
for  city  officers.  In  colonial  times  the  right  to  vote  was  de- 
nied to  all  who  did  not  own  a  certain  amount  of  property.  To- 
day property  restrictions  have  been  almost  wholly  removed. 
It  was  also  common,  in  colonial  times,  to  deny  the  right  to 
vote  to  all  who  were  not  members  of  a  given  church  (see 
page  150).  All  religious  qualifications  have  long  since 
been  removed.  The  suffrage  is  denied  to  citizens  who  are 
mentally  unsound,  and  in  some  states  to  those  who  cannot 
read  and  write,   and  to  paupers.     A   Citizen   may  also  be 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         169 

disqualified  from  voting  by  crime.  With  comparatively 
few  exceptions,  all  male  citizens  who  are  twenty-one  years 
of  age  or  over  possess  the  suffrage.  In  a  few  states  even 
aliens  may  vote  at  all  elections,  provided  they  have  declared 
their  intention  of  becoming  citizens. 

If  at  an  election  each  voter  should  cast  his  vote  for  the 
man  of  his  individual  choice,  it  might  easily  happen  that 
among  the  many  men  voted  for  no  one  would  Nomina- 
fairly  represent  a  large  number  of  citizens.  It  ^^^^ 
is  necessary  that  the  choice  of  the  voters  be  limited  to  a 
few  men  who  are  nominated  as  the  regular  candidates 
for  the  offices  in  question.  The  method  of  nominating 
candidates  for  the  many  elective  offices  in  our  country  is 
very  complicated.  It  is  not  prescribed  in  the  state  or  na- 
tional constitutions,  or  by  law,  but  has  grown  up  gradually 
and  become  fixed  by  custom.  In  order  to  understand  it, 
it  is  necessary  to  know  something  about  political  parties. 

In  every  community  there  are  differences  of  opinion 
on  almost  any  question,  as  in  religion,  in  educational 
matters,  or  in  business  policy.  If  any  such  political 
question  is  to  be  acted  upon,  those  whose  opinions  parties 
are  alike  will  act  together  in  opposition  to  those  who  think 
differently.  In  questions  of  government  there  are  differ- 
ences of  opinion.  In  the  division  of  the  people  on  any 
such  question,  those  who  think  alike  and  act  together 
systematically  and  constantly  constitute  a  political  party. 
The  party  may  be  of  a  local  character  and  may  be  formed 
with  reference  to  a  local  question,  such  as  the  paving  of  the 
streets  or  the  licensing  of  saloons  ;  or  it  may  be  national  in 
its  extent  and  arise  out  of  some  great  national  question, 
such  as  the  extension  of  slavery  or  the  acquiring  of  new 
territory. 

When  Washington  was  first  elected  President,  questions 


170  THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

of  governmental  policy  had  not  yet  divided  the  people, 
and  his  popularity  was  so  great  that  all  united  on  him 
as  their  choice  for  the  presidency.  When  differences  of 
opinion  arose  over  the  bank,  foreign  poHcy,  internal  im- 
provements, and  other  matters,  each  party  strove  to  elect 
representatives  to  the  government  who  would  carry  out  its 
ideas.  It  must  first  of  all  agree  on  a  single  candidate  for 
each  of  the  offices,  so  that  the  party's  vote  would  not  be 
divided. 

The  first  method  that  was  used  by  the  parties  for  the 
nomination  of  a  candidate  for  the  presidency  was  for 
M  th  d  f  ^^^  members  of  each  party  in  Congress  to  meet 
nominating  and  make  the  nomination.  This  method  after  a 
candidates  ^\^[\q  became  unpopular  because  the  nomina- 
tion fell  into  the  hands  of  a  small  group  of  politicians,  and 
the  people  felt  that  they  did  not  have  a  sufficient  voice  in 
the  matter.  Then  the  custom  arose  of  making  the  nomi- 
nations in  the  several  states.  Sometimes  it  was  done  by 
the  party  members  of  the  state  legislature.  The  custom 
gradually  began  to  prevail  of  holding  state  conventions 
composed  of  delegates  elected  by  the  people  of  the  state 
especially  for  the  purpose.  This  method  had  the  advan- 
tage of  placing  the  nomination  more  directly  in  the  hands 
of  the  people.  It  had  the  disadvantage  of  tending  to  di- 
vide the  plrty,  for  each  state  was  likely  to  nominate  its 
own  favorite  candidate  regardless  of  the  action  of  the 
other  states.  This  difficulty  was  finally  overcome  by  plac- 
ing the  nomination  of  the  candidates  for  the  presidency 
and  the  vice-presidency  in  the  hands  of  a  national  con- 
vention composed  of  delegates  from  all  the  states.  This 
is  the  method  now  in  usft. 

Let  us  suppose  that  an  election  time  is  approaching 
when  officers  are  to  be  chosen  for   the   local,  state,  and 


HOW  THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF 


171 


national  governments.  We  will  suppose  that  all  these  offi- 
cers are  to  be  chosen  at  the  same  time,  although  Primaries 
that  is  not  always  the  case.  Several  months  before  the 
election  day,  the  proper  committees  of  each  party  (see 
page  173)  call  for  the  primary  elections.  These  are  elec- 
tions held  in  each  of  the  smallest  election  districts  of  the 


An  Election  Scene. 

Each  voter  has  his  name  checked  off  from  the  book  where  it  is  registered,  and 

then  passes  into  the  building,  where  he  casts  his  vote. 

State.  In  cities  the  primary  district  is  sometimes  the  ward 
and  sometimes  the  precinct,  a  subdivision  of  the  ward ; 
in  rural  districts  it  is  the  township,  or  precinct  of  the 
township.  It  is  the  business  of  the  primary  to  nominate 
candidates  for  offices  of  the  primary  district,  as  ward 
councilmen  or  township  trustees,  and  to  elect  delegates  to 
nominating  conventions  of  larger  districts.  This  business 
is  sometimes  transacted  in  a  meeting,  or  caucus,  of  the 
voters  of  the  primary  district;    sometimes  it  is  done  by 


172  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

ballot,  each  voter  going  individually  to  the  voting  place 
sometime  during  the  day.  The  candidates  are  chosen 
from  among  a  number  of  men  who  have  previously  an- 
nounced through  the  newspapers  and  otherwise  their  will- 
ingness to  be  considered. 

Delegates    are    chosen  to   several  conventions   for  the 

nomination  of  candidates  for  the  offices  of  larger  areas. 

There  are  county  conventions,  at  which  nomina- 

Conventions      .  i      r  i  rr  ■ 

tions  are  made  for  the  county  omces ;  city  con- 
ventions for  the  nomination  of  city  officers ;  assembly 
district  conventions,  at  which  candidates  for  the  lower 
house  of  the  state  legislature  are  nominated  ;  senatorial 
district  conventions,  for  the  nomination  of  candidates  for 
the  state  senate;  congressional  district  conventions  iox  the 
nomination  of  candidates  for  the  lower  house  of  Congress ; 
and  state  conventions  for  the  nomination  of  candidates  for 
the  various  state  offices.  These  various  conventions  meet 
at  times  set  by  the  proper  committees  of  each  party. 

The  state  convention  not  only  nominates  the  candidates 
for  the  state  offices,  but  also  elects  delegates  to  the  national 
convention  for  the  nomination  of  President  and  Vice- 
President.  Sometime  during  the  summer  preceding  the 
national  election,  which  occurs  early  in  November,  the 
national  convention  of  each  party  meets  and  makes  its 
nominations.  Faithful  party  members  are  expected  to 
render  their  support  to  the  candidates  nominated  by 
their  respective  primaries  and  conventions. 

The  period  of  three  or  four  months  between  the  nomi- 
nations and  the  election  day  is  spent  by  each  party  in 
The  cam-  trying  to  win  support  for  its  candidates.  The 
paign  winning  of  votes  sometimes  seems  to  be  the  all- 

important  thing,  not  always,  unfortunately,  with  due  regard 
to  the  right  or  wrong  of  the  methods  used. 


HOW  THE  COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         173 

To  arrange  for  the  nominations,  to  carry  on  the  cam- 
paign, and  to  provide  for  the  elections,  requires  a  thorough 
organization  of  the  party.  The  management  is  organiza- 
largely  in  the  hands  of  committees.  Each  of  tion  of  the 
the  election  districts  named  above,  from  the  ^"*^ 
ward  to  the  state  and  nation,  has  its  central  committee. 
It  is  the  business  of  these  committees  to  keep  in  touch 
with  the  voters,  to  gather  and  distribute  information,  to 
collect  and  disburse  funds  for  the  conduct  of  the  campaign, 
to  provide  speakers,  publish  literature,  and  to  do  many 
other  things.  The  committees  of  the  larger  districts, 
and  especially  the  state  and  national  committees,  are  of 
great  importance  and  exert  great  influence.  The  chair- 
manship of  the  national  committee  is  sought  by  ambitious 
men  as  much  as  the  highest  public  offices  in  our  govern- 
ment. 

We  have  been  speaking,  for  convenience,  as  if  there 
were  only  one  campaign  and  one  election  time  for  all 
offices  in  our  government,  local,  state,  and  Frequency 
national.  This  is  not,  in  fact,  the  case.  The  of  elections 
terms  are  not  the  same  length  for  all  offices.  The  Presi- 
dent and  the  Vice-President  are  elected  for  four  years, 
members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  for  two  years, 
judges  for  the  state  courts,  when  not  appointed,  for  from  two 
to  twenty- one  years,  governors  for  from  one  to  four  years. 
The  practice  in  the  United  States  is  to  make  the  terms  of 
office  short  in  order  to  give  the  people  a  chance  frequently 
to  express  their  approval  or  disapproval  of  the  service 
rendered  by  their  representatives.  The  frequency  of 
elections  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  in  many  cases 
local  elections  are  held  at  different  times  from  national 
elections. 

Not  all  of   our  representatives  in   the  government  are 


1/4  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

chosen  by  a  direct  vote  of  the  people.  In  some  cases 
Indirect  they  are  elected  indirectly  by  the  people 
election  of     through    their    state    legislatures.      Thus    the 

some  repre-     ^  ^    .      ,     ^  ,  ^ 

sentativesof  United  States  senators  are  chosen.  It  was 
government  oncc  the  common  practice  for  the  state  legisla- 
tures to  elect  governors  ;  to-day  the  governors  are  cho- 
sen in  all  the   states   by  the  direct  vote   of    the    people. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  provides  that  the 
President  and  the  Vice-President  shall  be  elected  by  a 
group  of  men  from  each  state,  called  electors  (Art.  II,  sec.  i, 
clause  2;  Amendment  XIT).  Each  state  may  appoint 
its  electors  in  any  manner  it  chooses.  Formerly  they 
were  appointed  by  the  state  legislatures ;  but  to-day  they 
are  elected  by  popular  vote  in  all  the  states.  When  the 
voters  go  to  the  polls  on  election  day  in  November,  they 
in  reality  cast  their  ballots  for  the  electors,  who  have  been 
nominated  in  the  state  convention,  and  not  for  the  Pres- 
ident and  the  Vice-President  directly.  The  intention  of 
the  Constitution  was  that  the  electors  should  have  the 
choice  of  the  President  entirely  in  their  hands,  the  thought 
being  that  they  would  be  better  able  than  the  people  to 
select  a  capable  man  for  the  office.  Since  the  party 
system,  with  its  method  of  making  presidential  nomina- 
tions, has  arisen,  the  choice  by  the  electors  is  a  mere  form, 
for  they  invariably  vote  for  the  candidates  nominated  by 
their  party  convention. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  those  who  serve  the  peo- 
ple in  government  offices  are  not  elected  at  all,  but  are  ap- 
Appoint-  pointed  by  various  executive  officers,  such  as  the 
ment  of  President,  the  governors,  the  mayors  of  cities, 
and  their  subordinates.  It  would  be  impracti- 
cable for  the  people  to  elect  all  the  thousands  of  officers 
and  employes  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  the 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         175 

government.  It  is  deemed  better  to  elect  only  the  chief 
officials,  upon  whose  work  the  people  can  keep  their  eyes 
with  comparative  ease,  and  to  hold  them  responsible,  not 
only  for  their  own  work,  but  also  for  the  work  of  all  those 
whom  they  appoint  to  subordinate  positions. 

This,  in  general,  is  the  way  in  which  the  people  provide 
for  the  machinery  of  the   government  which  is  to  serve 
them  in  regulating  the  affairs  of  the  community,  ^j^^  ^.^^ 
One  point  further  needs  to  be  emphasized.     We  must  obey 
have  said  that  government  is  the  servant,  and  ment°as^the 
not   the  master,    of   the   people.     What,   then,   agent  of  the 
about    obedience    to   the    government.?      Shall  '^^"^^"^^ty 
masters   obey   their   servants  ?     The   feeling   of  personal 
responsibility  for  the  conduct  of  community  affairs,  and 
obedience,   are    the   two  most  essential  qualities  of  good 
citizenship. 

The  government  represents  the  community,  and  the  in- 
dividual is  called  on  to  obey  the  government  as  the  agent 
of  the  community.  When  the  government  says  to  an  in- 
dividual that  he  must  do  this,  or  that  he  must  not  do 
that,  it  is  the  voice  of  the  people  speaking  to  him  through 
the  government.  It  was  William  Penn  who  said  :  ^'Any 
government  is  free  to  the  people  under  it  ivhere  the  laws 
rnle  and  the  people  are  a  party  to  those  laws.  Liberty 
without  obedience  is  confusion,  and  obedience  without  liberty 
is  slavery'' 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Review  together  in  class  the  preamble  of  the  Constitution,  notic- 
ing carefully  the  thought  and  the  language. 

2.  Discuss  direct  and  indirect  self-government.  Does  direct  self- 
government  exist  in  any  way  in  your  community? 

3.  Discuss  in  class  the  meaning  of  democracy;  of  a  republic-  What 
other  forms  of  government  are  there  besides  republics? 


176  THE    COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

4.  Discuss  the  meaning  of  a  federal  nation,  and  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment. Emphasize  the  division  of  powers  between  state  and  national 
governments. 

5.  Study  the  powers  of  Congress  enumerated  in  Art.  I,  sec.  8,  of  the 
Constitution.  Study  the  powers  denied  to  the- states  by  the  Constitution 
in  Art.  I,  sec.  10. 

6.  Discuss  some  of  the  powers  that  may  be  exercised  by  both  state 
and  national  governments. 

7.  Discuss  carefully  in  class  how  the  relations  between  state  and  local 
governments  differ  from  the  relations  between  state  and  national  govern- 
ments. 

8.  Give  examples  of  how  the  local  government  carries  out  the  pro- 
visions of  state  laws. 

9.  Give  examples  of  some  of  the  laws  enacted  by  your  local  govern- 
ment. 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  of  having  our  representatives  live  in 
our  own  locality?     What  disadvantages  might  arise  from  this  custom? 

11.  What  are  the  qualifications  for  the  suffrage  in  your  state  (see 
state  constitution)  ?  Do  you  think  that  these  qualifications  should  be 
increased,  or  otherwise? 

12.  Report  on  the  meaning  of  the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution, and  the  historical  reason  for  its  enactment. 

13.  What  are  the  great  political  parties  of  to-day?  What  are  some 
of  the  questions  on  which  they  are  opposed  to  each  other? 

14.  Are  there,  or  have  there  been,  in  your  community  any  local 
political  parties  growing  out  of  local  questions  ? 

15.  How  are  primaries  held  in  your  community? 

16.  Investigate,  and  give  an  outline  of,  the  method  of  nominating 
your  county  officers,  from  the  primary  to  the  final  nomination  ;  your  city 
officers  ;  your  state  officers  :  the  President. 

17.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  organization  of  the  party  which 
you  favor  in  your  community  and  in  your  state  (committees,  etc.). 

18.  What  are  some  of  the  methods  used  in  conducting  a  political 
campaign  ? 

19.  What  is  the  method  of  electing  the  President  as  given  in  the 
Constitution,  Art.  II,  sec.  2,  and  Amendment  XII?  Discuss  in  class 
the  purpose  of  this  method,  and  how  the  method  actually  works. 

20.  Think  of  the  persons  holding  government  offices  or  positions  in 
your  community,  and  estimate  about  what  proportion  of  them  are  elected, 
and  what  proportion  appointed. 

21.  Study  carefully  the  meaning  of  the  quotation  from  William 
Penn  given  in  the  last  paragraph. 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF        177 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,''  chapters  III-V. 

Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  II-VII,  X,  XI,  XIV,  XXX, 
XLV. 

Bryce, "  The  American  Commonwealth''  (last  edition),  vol.  I,  chapters 
XXVII,  XXVIII ;  vol.  II,  chapters  LIII-LV;  LIX,  LX,  LXVI,  LXIX- 
LXXI  (abridged  edition,  chapters  XXVI,  XXVII,  LII-LIV). 
The  subject  of  proportional  representation  is  dealt  with  in 
Review  of  Reviews^  6  :  541-544 ;  21  :  583-585. 
Outlook,  55  :  342-345- 
Atlantic  Monthly,  84:  529-535. 


CHAPTER  XX 

SOME    DEFECTS    IN    THE    SELF-GOVERNMENT  OF  OUR 
COMMUNITIES 

In  some  ways  our  self-government  does  not  work  as 
intended.  In  the  first  place  it  is  not  always  representative 
S  If  ov  ^^  ^^^  ^^^  people,  but  is  a  governinc7it  of  the  people 
ernment  de-  by  a  fezv.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  the  people 
dve^ interest  themselves  lack  sufficient  interest  to  take  part  in 
of  all  citi-  government  as  much  as  they  could.  They  do  in 
this  as  they  are  inclined  to  do  in  other  matters  : 
having  employed  some  one  to  look  after  the  business  of 
government  for  them,  they  feel  relieved  of  all  responsibility. 
If  we  are  to  be  a  really  self-governing  people,  each  citizen 
must  take  an  active  part. 

There  are  only  a  few  ways  in  which  most  citizens  can  take 
part  in  government,  but  these  are  very  important.  Not 
The  duty  of  many  citizens  can  hold  office.  In  a  self-govern- 
taking  office  j^g  community  it  is  the  duty  of  a  citizen,  as 
well  as  a  privilege,  to  take  office  when  the  community  calls 
upon  him.  It  may  seem  unnecessary  to  emphasize  this,  for 
usually  there  are  more  men  who  want  office  than  there  are 
offices  to  fill.  The  trouble  is  that  the  men  who  seek  office 
do  not  always  make  the  best  officers.  The  men  who  will 
look  after  the  community  business  best  are  most  often  men 
who  have  large  interests  of  their  own.  The  wide-awake 
community  that  is  fully  alive  to  its  best  interests  will  usu- 
ally look  among  these  busy,  successful  men  and  say  to  one 
of  them,  '*  You  are  capable,  honest,  and  successful  in  man- 

178 


DEFECTS    IN    SELF-GOVERNMENT  179 

aging  your  own  affairs ;  we  want  you  to  help  manage 
the  community's  affairs  in  office."  Unfortunately  such 
men  too  often  shrink  from  the  burdens  and  cares  of  office, 
or  from  giving  up  the  necessary  time  from  their  own 
business.  Patriotism  to  one's  community  calls  for  just  such 
sacrifices. 

The  same  lack  of  patriotism  is  shown  in  a  smaller  way 
by  a  larger  number  of  citizens  who  make  all  manner  of 
excuses  to  avoid  public  service  of  various  kinds.  Patriotismin 
A  good  example  of  this  is  in  jury  service.  Every  •i"'^  service 
person  accused  of  crime  oi;  sued  at  law  has  the  right  to  trial 
before  a  jury  of  his  fellow-citizens  (Constitution,  Amend- 
ments VI  and  VII).  Nearly  every  man  may  be  called 
upon  to  serve  on  a  jury,  and  he  is  shirking  an  important 
responsibility  if,  without  good  cause,  he  seeks  to  avoid  it. 
There  are  some  classes  of  men  who  are  regularly  and 
properly  excused  from  jury  service,  such  as  physicians. 
Other  men  may,  at  times,  have  a  valid  excuse  for 
not  serving.  The  fact  that  it  is  so  difficult  to  get 
jurymen  from  the  best  classes  of  citizens  often  results  in 
juries  of  idlers  and  ignorant  men.  One  of  the  strongest 
safeguards  against  injustice  is  thus  weakened. 

The  paying  of  taxes  is  a  most  important  way  of  taking 
part  in  the  government.     All  citizens  who  have  property  are 
taxed  to  help  pay  the  expense  of  government,   p     .    . 
It  is  surprising  to    find  how  many  citizens  en-   in  paying 
deavor    to    avoid    paying    their    share    toward   *^^®^ 
sustaining  the  government  in  its  work  for  them. 

Another  way  of  taking  part   in  the  government  is  by 
voting  for  the  nomination  and  election  of  officers.     Thou- 
sands of  voters   stay   away  from   the   polls  on    Patriotism 
election  day,  throwing  away  the  privilege  of  self-  ^^  voting 
government,   and  allowing  others  to.  govern  them.     This 


l80  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

is  especially  true  at  the  primaries,  which  are  really  the 
most  important  part  of  an  election.  The  choice  of -good 
men  for  the  highest  offices  in  the  land,  even  the  President, 
depends  on  the  choice  of  good  men  at  the  primaries.  Yet 
it  is  notorious  that  the  primaries  are  poorly  attended. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  this.  One  is  that  men 
feel  too  busy  to  leave  their  work,  or  they  consider  the 
election  of  delegates  and  the  nomination  of 
do  not  at-  local  officers  too  unimportant  to  take  their  time, 
tend  the  Another  reason  voters  give  for  not  attending 
the  primaries  is  that  they  are  unacquainted  with 
the  candidates  for  nomination  or  election,  and  therefore 
cannot  vote  intelligently.  In  large  communities  where 
men  do  not  know  all  their  neighbors,  it  is  difficult  for  the 
ordinary  busy  citizen  to  keep  informed  in  regard  to  the 
merits  of  the  various  candidates.  If  a  citizen  is  sufficiently 
interested,  and  does  not  wait  until  a  day  or  two  before  the 
primary  to  inform  himself,  it  is  usually  possible  for  him  to 
enhghten  himself  sufficiently  to  cast  his  vote  wisely.  This 
excuse  is  often  an  admission  of  flagging  interest  in  what 
is  going  on  in  the  community  during  the  time  between 
elections.  In  many  of  our  cities  there  are  reform  associa- 
tions which  publish,  before  election  time,  the  names  of  the 
candidates  of  all  parties  with  a  sketch  of  their  records  as 
citizens  and  public  servants. 

Another  thing  that  keeps  many  voters  away  from 
the  primaries  is  the  feeling  that  their  votes  have  no 
Primaries  ^^^^  influence,  either  because  of  unfair  treat- 
controlled  ment  at  the  primaries,  or  because  the  action  of 
^  *  ®^  the  primary  is  determined  beforehand  by  a  few 
party  leaders.  Even  these  are  not  sufficient  reasons  for 
staying  away  from  the  polls.  If  all  good  citizens  in  a 
primary  district  always  attended  the  pHmaries,  there  would 


DEFECTS   IN    SELF-GOVERNMENT  i8l 

usually  be  enough  of  them  to  prevent  a  small  group  of 
politicians  from  controlling  affairs  against  their  will.  By 
staying  away  the  timid  voters  abandon  the  fight,  before  it 
is  begun,  to  the  small  but  wide-awake  group  of  politicians, 
who  can  therefore  run  things  as  they  please,  whether  for 
good  or  for  ill. 

This  brings  us  to  some  of  the  dangers  to  self-govern- 
ment resulting  from  the  way  in  which  political  parties  are 
organized  and  managed. 

Political  parties  are  unavoidable  under  a  form  of  gov- 
ernment like  ours.  They  are  the  means  of  securing  united 
action  among  the  voters  who   think  alike.     A   ^ 

°  Dangers  of 

voter  cannot  accomphsh  much  unless  he  belongs  the  party 
to  a  party  and  works  and  votes  with  it.  Yet  it  ^^*"* 
must  be  remembered  that  a  party  is  merely  a  means  to  ac- 
complish a  result,  and  not  in  itself  a  sacred  thing.  The 
purpose  of  a  party  should  be  to  secure  good  government 
for  all  the  people.  The  words  of  Washington  in  his  Fare- 
well Address  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  by  the  pa- 
triotic American  citizen.  He  said:  ''The  spirit  [of  party], 
unfortunately,  is  inseparable  from  our  nature,  having  its 
root  in  the  strongest  passions  of  the  human  mind.  It 
exists  under  different  shapes  in  all  governments,  more  or 
less  stifled,  controlled,  or  repressed ;  but  in  those  of  the 
popular  form  it  is  seen  in  its  greatest  rankness,  and  is  truly 
their  worst  enemy.  The  alternate  domination  of  one  faction 
over  another,  sharpened  by  the  spirit  of  revenge  natural 
to  party  dissensions  .  .  .  is  itself  a  frightful  despotism.  .  .  . 
The  common  and  continual  mischiefs  of  the  spirit  of  party 
are  sufficient  to  make  it  the  interest  and  duty  of  a  wise 
people  to  discourage  and  restrain  it." 

In  a  government  in  which  the  voice  of  the  people  rules, 
and  in  which  the  people  are  divided  in  their  opinion,  it  is 


l82  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

necessary  that  the  majority  shall  rule.  The  party  that 
The  ma-  represents  the  majority  of  the  voters  must 
jority  should  determine  the  policy  of  the  e^overnment;  but  it 

rule  for  the      ,        ,  ,  i       /  ,  ,  • 

benefit  of  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  party  m  power 
^  should  govern  in  the  interests  of  the  minority 

as  well  as  of  the  majority.  The  minority  should  always 
have  an  opportunity  of  expressing  their  views  in  the  coun- 
cils of  the  government,  and  the  party  in  power  should 
respect  their  views  as  far  as  possible. 

To  secure  united  action  among  the  members  of  a  party 

there  must  be  organization  under  the  direction  of  leaders. 

Each  city  ward  has  its  leader,  or  leaders,  who 

The  party  ...  .  .  ,  i      ,      •        i  .,•  •    r, 

machine,  g^-in  their  position  through  their  abihty  to  influ- 
rings  and       ence  the  voters  of  the  ward  and  to  hold  them 

bosses 

together.  These  ward  leaders  are  under  the 
authority  of  a  leader,  or  "ring"  of  leaders,  for  the  whole 
city.  If  one  leader  gains  great  influence  over  the  party 
in  the  city,  or  in  the  state,  he  is  called  a  boss.  This  or- 
ganization extends  throughout  the  nation,  with  branches 
in  every  community.  The  organization  is  often  called  the 
machine,  the  group  of  leaders  controlling  the  machine  is  a 
political  ring,  and  the  boss  is  the  commander-in-chief  of 
all,  his  influence  sometimes  being  Hmited  to  a  city,  or 
extending  over  a  state  or  even  the  whole  nation. 

These  names  —  machine,  ring,  and  boss  —  were  applied 
by  the  party's  enemies.  They  do  not  necessarily  mean  any- 
thing bad.  A  machine  (that  is,  an  organization) 
agement  is  necessary,  and  there  must  be  bosses,  or  lead- 
for  selfish  g^-s.  The  evil  connected  with  these  things 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  machine  sometimes 
falls  into  the  hands  of  ambitious,  but  unscrupulous,  bosses 
and  rings,  who  manage  the  party  merely  for  the  party's 
sake,  or  what  is  worse,  for  their  own  selfish  ends. 


DEFECTS   IN   SELF-GOVERNMENT  183 

It  sometimes  happens  that  bosses  and  rings  are  them- 
selves under  the  domination  of  wealthy  corporations  which 
are   seeking  to  secure    legislation  favorable  to  Dggpotism 
their  own  interests.     In  such  cases  the  people  of  wealthy 
are  not  their  own  governors,  but  are  subject  to  <^o^o^***o°^ 
the  despotism  of  the  corporations. 

The  leaders  of  a  party  use  various  methods  to  maintain 
their   control  over  the  voters,  and   over   the    subordinate 

leaders.    Sometimes  they  do  it  by  argument  and 

,         ,  .  ,        How  the 

persuasion,  sometimes  by  threats,  sometimes  by  party  main- 
promises  of  reward,  and  sometimes  by  actual  tams  control 

,     .,  ^  ,       1    .  1      1  1    1      r  ^^^^  voters 

bribery.     A  common  method  is  to  hold  before 

the  party  worker  the  promise  of  reward  by  appointment 

to  some  office  of  government. 

Nearly  all  the  offices  of  government  are  filled  by  ap- 
pointment, and  constitute  the  civil  service.  There  are 
about  three  hundred  thousand  such  offices  or  jhe  civil 
positions  under  the  national  government,  and  service 
probably  as  many  more  under  the  state  and  local  govern- 
ments. It  is  necessary  that  some  of  the  more  important 
of  these  offices  should  be  filled  by  men  who  will  sympathize 
with  the  policy  of  the  government  as  indicated  by  the 
party  in  power,  as  in  the  positions  of  the  cabinet  officers 
who  are  advisers  with  the  President  and  carry  out  his  poHcy. 
There  are,  however,  some  offices  in  which  party  feeling 
should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  at  all,  as  in  the- case  of 
judges  of  our  courts.  Their  business  is  to  interpret  the 
law  and  to  render  justice,  which  is  always  the  same  under 
any  party.  There  are  many  thousands  of  other  offices,  or 
government  positions,  in  which  a  man's  party  beliefs  would 
make  no  difference  in  the  performance  of  his  duty,  as  in 
the  case  of  postmen  and  mail  clerks. 

It  early  became  the  practice  of  a  victorious  party  to  dis- 


1 84  THE   COMMUNITY   AND  THE  CITIZEN 

miss  many  members  of  the  defeated  party  who  were  hold- 
The  spoHs  i^g  government  positions,  and  to  fill  their  places 
system  Y^^j^h  its  own  members.     This  plan  began  in  the 

national  government  under  Andrew  Jackson,  and  is  known 
as  the  spoils  system,  because  it  was  founded  on  the  princi- 
ple that  "to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils." 

The  spoils  system  brought  with  it  a  train  of  evils.  The 
changes  made  in  the  civil  service  with  each  change  of  ad- 
ministration were  injurious  to  the  efficiency  of 
menToffices  ^^^  service.  The  worst  evil  .was  the  habit  it 
are  posts  Cultivated  of  looking  upon  the  offices  of  govern- 
not^areward  ™^^t  as  booty,  to  be  sought  for,  and  even  fought 
for,  as  rewards  for  party  service.  The  man  who 
works  for  a  party  merely  for  what  he  can  get  out  of  it 
in  the  shape  of  a  salaried  office  is  not  a  safe  man  for  the 
people  to  put  their  confidence  in  as  their  representative  in 
government. 

A  great  deal  has  been  done  in  the  last  few  years  to  de- 
stroy the  spoils  system  of  making  appointments  to  office. 
In  1883  a  civil  service  law  was  passed,  and  a  Civil 
system  in  Service  Commission  created  by  Congress,  for  the 
the  civil  purpose  of  improving  conditions.  By  this  act 
a  merit  system  of  making  appointments  was 
introduced.  By  the  merit  system,  candidates  for  the 
civil  service  must  pass  a  competitive  examination  to  show 
fitness,  and  when  appointed,  they  hold  office  during  good 
behavior.  At  first  this  system  was  applied  to  only  a  few 
of  the  offices,  but  the  number  of  offices  in  which  it  oper- 
ates has  steadily  increased  until  to-day  more  than  half  of 
the  national  offices  are  subject  to  it.  The  merit  system 
of  appointment  has  been  adopted  also  in  some  states  and 
cities. 

In  a  number  of  states,  laws  have  been  passed  to  secure 


DEFECTS   IN   SELF-GOVERNMENT  185 

honest  primaries.  The  caucus  method  of  holding  pri- 
maries (that  is,  the  meeting  together  of  the  Rgf^j^  ^^ 
voters  of  the  primary  district)  has  been  aban-  the  pri- 
doned  in  many  places.  Instead,  nominations  ^^^^^ 
are  made  by  ballot,  as  in  the  case  of  a  regular  election, 
each  voter  going  singly  to  the  polls  to  cast  his  vote.  An- 
other reform  to  prevent  voters  from  being  unduly  influenced 
by  threats  or  bribery  is  the  Australian  system  of  elections. 
Formerly  each  party  had  its  ticket  (list  of  candidates) 
printed  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper,  usually  of  different 
color  from  the  tickets  of  other  parties.  It  could  then  be 
seen  how  each  man  voted,  and  he  could  be  held  to  account 
by  watchers.  The  Australian  ballot  contains  the  names 
of  the  candidates  of  all  parties  on  a  single  sheet  The  Austra- 
of  paper.  Every  voter  receives  one  of  these  HanbaUot 
from  election  officers,  and  retires  alone  into  a  booth  where 
he  marks  the  names  of  the  candidates  for  whom  he  wishes 
to  vote,  unseen  by  any  one.  The  secrecy  of  his  ballot 
gives  him  greater  independence.  A  more  recent  device  is 
the  votmg  machine^  which  makes  fraud  in  the  casting  or 
counting  of  votes  practically  impossible. 

The  most  important  thing  of  all  to  insure  honest  and 
capable    government,    government  that  is  really  for  the 
people  and  by  the  people,  is  for  every  good  citi- 
zen who  has  the  right  to  vote  to  take  part  ac-  biiity  of  the 

tively  in  the  e^overnment.     There  have  recently   "tizen  for 
.      ■  ,     ,  ,  r  •  •      reform 

been    remarkable    reforms    m    government    m 

some  states,  and  especially  in  some  cities.  In  every  case 
these  reforms  have  been  brought  about  only  when  the 
majority  of  good  citizens  became  aroused,  and  worked 
together  in  season  and  out  of  season  to  secure  the  retire- 
ment of  dishonest  officials  and  the  election  of  honest  men. 
It  is  every  citizen's  supreme  duty  to  keep  himself  informed 


1 86  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

in  regard  to  political  matters,  and  to  take  an  active  part 
in  securing  good  government. 

The  question  may  arise  in  our  minds  whether  our  govern 
Conditions     ment  is  all  that  it  pretends  to  be,  and  whether 
bettfrnof     ^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  self-governing  people  that 
worse  we  usually  consider   ourselves.     We   must  not 

get  a  wrong  impression  of  the  situation.  Any  plan,  how- 
ever excellent,  is  bound  to  miscarry  at  times  when  it  is  in 
the  hands  of  imperfect  human  beings.  It  must  not  be 
supposed  that  our  plan  of  government  is  wrong  because  it 
is  sometimes  wrongly  used.  Neither  must  it  be  supposed 
that  it  is  wrongly  used  in  the  hands  of  all  ofificers.  Instead, 
we  have  great  reason  to  be  hopeful  that  the  defects  in  our 
government  will  disappear.  We  can  feel  assured  that  the 
great  majority  of  the  people  will  do  right  when  they  see 
the  right,  and  that  there  are  to-day  many  honest  and  patri- 
otic leaders  who  are  earnestly  striving  to  give  the  people 
the  best  that  government  can  secure.  Conditions  are  not 
getting  worse,  but  better.  If  we  see  more  corruption  to- 
day than  formerly,  it  is  rather  because  we  are  opening  our 
eyes,  and  that  we  are  striving  more  earnestly  to  uproot 
the  evils. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Discuss  in  class  the  question  whether  we  are  a  democracy  or 
an  oligarchy. 

2.  Why  is  holding  office  a  duty?     Why  is  it  a  privilege? 

3.  How  are  jurymen  selected  ?  What  will  debar  a  man  from  serv- 
ing on  a  jury?  What  would  you  consider  a  good  excuse  for  an  ordinary 
business  man's  not  serving  when  called  on? 

4.  Are  the  primaries  in  your  community  well  attended  ?  Try  to  find 
out  the  reasons  for  non-attendance  from  some  of  the  men  of  your 
acquaintance. 

5.  Is  there  any  organization  in  your  community  that  tries  to  inform 
the  people  of  the  records  and  character  of  the  candidates  for  nomina- 


DEFECTS   IN   SELF-GOVERNMENT  187 

tion  and  election?    Why  might  it  be  difficult  to  get  reliable  information 
in  regard  to  these  matters? 

6.  Have  any  laws  been  passed  recently  in  your  state  for  the  reform 
of  the  primaries?     What  are  the  main  features  of  these  new  laws? 

7.  Study  those  parts  of  Washington's  Farewell  Address  that  deal 
with  political  parties.     Discuss  carefully  his  meaning. 

8.  Investigate  the  methods  of  conducting  primaries  in  the  worst 
districts  of  large  cities.  Where  are  they  held?  How  are  they  man- 
aged?    Are  similar  methods  used  anywhere  in  your  own  city? 

9.  Report  on  the  history  of  Tammany  Hall  in  New  York. 

10.  Report  on  the  history  of  the  Gas  Ring  in  Philadelphia. 

11.  Report  on  the  application  of  the  spoils  system  under  Jackson's 
administration. 

12.  Report  on  the  history  of  civil  service  reform. 

13.  Is  the  merit  system  of  appointment  used  in  your  state? 

14.  Is  the  merit  system  'of  appointment  used  in  your  city  govern- 
ment?    How  does  it  work? 

15.  Look  up  the  story  of  the  recent  reform  in  the  government  of 
Philadelphia. 

16.  Look  up  the  story  of  the  recent  reform  in  the  government  of 
St.  Louis. 

17.  Are  voting  machines  used  in  your  community?  How  do  they 
work? 

REFERENCES 

Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  II,  chapters  LXill- 
LXV,  LXVII,  LXVIII;  LXXXVIII,  LXXXIX;  XCVII,  XCVIII. 
(Chapters  LXXXVIII  and  LXXXIX  deal  with  Tammany  and  the 
Gas  Ring  of  Philadelphia.) 

Miller,  "  The  Business  Man  in  Politics,"  North  A?nerkan  Review, 
151:576-581. 

Bishop,  "A  New  Porm  of  Government,"  Foriun,  23:  396-408. 

Roosevelt,  "What  Americanism  Means," /^6'r;//;/,  17:  196-206. 

Roosevelt,  "  Essays  on  Practical  Politics,"  "  American  Ideals  and 
Other  Essays." 

On  election  primaries  and  their  reform,  see 

Outlook,  56  :  9-11 ;  57  :  950-952 ;  58  :  176-177: 
Atlantic  Moftt/ily,  79  :  450-467. 

Review  of  Reviews,  i6 :  322-324 ;   17 :  472-474 ,  583-589. 

Bryce,  "The American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  II,  chapter  LXXXIVj  "The 
Tyranny  of  the  Majority." 

"  Money  in  Politics  and  Elections,"  Century  Magazine,  44 :  940-953. 


1 88  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

For  civil  service  reform  see 

Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Civil  Service  Commission,  pp.  489-502, 
for  an  account  of  the  growth  of  civil  service  reform, 

Roosevelt,  "An  Object  Lesson  in  Civil  Service  Reform,"  Atlantic  Monthly,  67: 
252-257 ;  "  Present  Status  of  Civil  Service  Reform,"  Atlantic  Monthly,  75  :  239-246; 
"Six  Years  of  Civil  Service  Reform,"  Scribner's  Magazine,  18:238-247  (also  in 
"American  Ideal^and  Other  Essays"). 

Outlook,  78  :  964  ;  84  :  799. 

Forum,  30 :  608. 

The  spoils  system  under  Jackson,  McMaster,  "  History  of  the  People 
of  the  United  States,"  vol.  V,  pp.  523-536. 
Ballot  Reform,  Johnson''s  Encyclopedia. 
Electoral  Reform,  New  International  Encyclopedia. 
Elections,  Encyclopedia  Americana. 
Godkin,  "  Duty  of  Educated  Men  in  a  Democracy,"  Forum,  17  : 

39-51- 

For  reform  in  St.  Louis  and  Philadelphia,  see 

Arena,  30 :  i ;  33 :  43 ;  34 :  196. 
World  To-day,  10:  471 ;  11 :  869. 
Outlook,  68 :  430. 
World's  Work,  10 :  6639. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

THE    GOVERNMENT   OF   RURAL   COMMUNITIES:   TOWN- 
SHIP  AND   COUNTY 

The  English  colonists  who  settled  in  America  were 
familiar  with  forms  of  both  national  and  local  government 
in  England.  Their  removal  to  America  did  not  at  first 
change  their  national  government  in  any  way,  for  the 
EngHsh  government  remained  theirs.  To  meet  their  local 
needs,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  necessary  to  establish  some 
form  of  local  government  in  this  country.  In  doing  so,  it 
was  natural  that  they  should  imitate  the  forms  with  which 
they  had  been  familiar  in  England. 

In  the  early  times  of  English  history  the  smallest  politi- 
cal division  of  the  land  was  the  tozvn,  which,  in  those  days, 
consisted  of  a  palisaded  village  with  surrounding 

11-  11  Origin  of 

farm  and  pasture  land;  it  was  governed- by  a  township 
meetino^  of  the  men  of  the  town,  or  town  mcetino;.   and  town 

meeting 

In  the  troublous  course  of  early  English  history, 
these  towns  lost  their  right  of  direct  self-government. 
Meanwhile  another  division  of  the  land  had  appeared  for 
purposes  of  church  goveriiment.  This  was  t\\Q parish,  which 
was  under  the  control  of  the  parish  priest.  The  parish 
usually  coincided  in  area  with  the  older  town.  The  people 
of  the  parish  met  in  a  vestry  meetrng,  to  assess  the  church 
rates  for  church  expenses  and  the  care  of  the  poor.  As 
the  powers  of  the  town  meeting  declined,  the  vestry  meeting 
gradually  assumed  them,  until  it  became  really  the  same 
thing  as  the  older  town  meeting. 

189 


I90  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

When  the  Puritans  left  England  because  of  restrictions 
on  their  religious  liberty,  they  went  in  congregations ;  and 
Wh  the  when  they  settled  in  Massachusetts,  they  settled 
township  in  little  palisaded  communities  around  the  church. 
!^!!!!^^T^^    Under  these  conditions  it  was  natural  that  the 

adopted  in 

New  Eng-  New  England  colonists  should  adopt  the  town, 
^"  or  parish,  form  of  government  with  which  they 

were  famihar.  Each  little  community,  including  the  village 
and  the  surrounding  farms,  was  called  a  town,  or  township. 
The  town  3.nd  was  governed  by  a  meeting  of  all  the  freemen 
meeting  (landholders)  who  belonged  to  the  church.  This 
meeting  was  called  the  tow7i  meeting.  It  originally  met  in 
the  church,  but  afterward  in  the  ioivn  house.  It  levied 
taxes  for  church  purposes,  to  provide  for  the  poor,  and 
to  pay  the  expenses  of  government.  It  provided  for  a 
school.  It  authorized  the  construction  and  repair  of  roads 
and  bridges.  The  laws  enacted  by  the  town  meeting  were 
called  by-laws^  which  means  town  laws. 

For  the  execution  of  the  by-laws  it  was  necessary  for 
the  town  meeting  to  elect  officers.  First  of  all,  there  were 
Town  from  three  to  nine  selectmen,  the  number  vary- 

officers  ing  with  the  size  of  the  township.     They  had 

general  supervision  over  all  community  business.  They 
represented  the  town  when  the  town  meeting  was  not  in 
session,  and  called  the  town  meeting  when  necessary.  The 
town  clerk  kept  the  records  of  the  business  of  the  town. 
The  town  treastirer  received  the  taxes  of  the  people,  and 
paid  the  expenses  of  the  community.  There  were  tax 
assessors,  who  determined  the  amount  of  tax  each  citizen 
must  pay,  and  overseers  of  the  poor.  The  constable  served 
warrants  issued  by  the  selectmen,  arrested  criminals,  and 
sometimes  collected  the  taxes.  Each  town  had  also  a 
school  committee. 


TOWNSHIP   AND   COUNTY  191 

In  England,  at  the  time  when  America  was  colonized, 
the  parish  was  only  a  part  of  the  local  government. 
There  was  also  the  shire ^  or  county.  The  county  origin  of 
included  a  number  of  parishes,  or  townships,  the  county 
Over  the  county  there  was  a  government  which  at  one 
time  was  composed  of  representatives  from  the  townships 
and  cities,  but  which  afterward  consisted  of  a  number  of 
justices  of  the  peace  appointed  by  the  king.  These  justices 
constituted  the  court  of  quarter  sessions,  meeting  every 
quarter  of  the  year  to  hold  court.  They  were  both  a  judi- 
cial body,  trying  cases  at  law,  and  an  administrative  body, 
managing  the  affairs  of  the  county. 

The  colonists  of  Virginia  did  not  come  like  the  Pilgrims 
for  religious  freedom,  or  like  the  later  settlers  of  Massa- 
chusetts for  political  freedom.  They  came  in  ^, 
search  of  wealth.  Virginia  is  a  rich  farming  system  in 
country,  in  which  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  in  ^*^sin»a 
great  plantations  proved  to  be  the  most  profitable  industry. 
The  colonists  scattered  themselves  along  the  rivers,  as 
planters,  instead  of  living  in  compact  communities  like  the 
New  England  colonists.  When  they  organized  themselves 
for  local  government,  therefore,  they  adopted  the  EngHsh 
plan  of  county  government,  instead  of  the  township  plan. 
The  whole  colony  was  divided  into  counties,  over  each  of 
which  was  placed  a  county  court,  consisting  of  eight  justices 
of  the  peace.  These  justices  were  appointed  by  the 
governor  of  the  colony,  as  in  England  they  were  appointed 
by  the  king,  but  they  could  themselves  fill  vacancies  in 
their  number.  The  county  court  was  primarily  a  judicial 
body,  trying  cases  at  law,  and  meeting  for  the  purpose 
about  once  a  month  at  a  designated  point  called  the  county 
seat.  It  had  also  administrative  powers,  as  in  England. 
It  appointed  JiigJiway  surveyors  and  constables.     It  levied 


192 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


taxes  for  the  maintenance  of  roads  and  bridges,  and  for 
other  expenses  of  government  In  each  county  there  was 
a  sheriffs  appointed  by  the  colonial  governor.  His  chief 
duties  were  to  execute  the  judgments  of  the  court,  and  to 
serve  as  treasurer  and  tax  collector.  Another  important 
officer  was  the  county  lieiUenant,  who  had  command  of  the 
militia. 


J 


Copyright,  1906,  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

Court  House,  Denver,  Colo. 

Thus  we  find  two  forms  of  local  government  in  the  colo- 
nies. Both  were  brought  from  England,  but  each  was 
Two  forms  adapted  to  the  pecuHar  conditions  in  which  the 
eovera-  colonists  found  themselves.  The  township  sys- 
ment  tcm  prevailed  throughout  New  England,  where 

it  is  still  the  unit  of  the  political  organization.     The  town 
meeting  may  still  be  found  in  many  small  communities, 


TOWNSHIP  AND   COUNTY  193 

although  it  has  necessarily  been  abandoned  for  the  repre- 
sentative system  in  the  larger  communities.  The  county 
system  prevailed,  with  some  variations,  throughout  the 
Southern  colonies,  where  the  conditions  of  life  were  very 
much  alike,  and  it  is  to-day  the  unit  of  the  political  organi- 
zation throughout  the  Southern  states. 

New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  lying  between  New  Eng- 
land and  the  Southern  colonies,  were  influenced  in  their 
forms  of  local  government  by  both  sections,  xhe  mixed 
They  developed  both  township  and  county,  typ® 
In  New  York  the  township  predominated,  and  it  was  organ- 
ized very  much  as  in  New  England.  The  townships,  how- 
ever, were  grouped  into  counties,  and  each  township  in  a 
county  elected  each  year  a  member  of  the  county  board  of 
supervisors.  In  Pennsylvania,  also,  there  were  both  town- 
ship and  county,  but  the  latter  predominated  over  the  town- 
ship. The  county  officers  in  Pennsylvania  were  all  elected 
by  the  people  of  the  county,  instead  of  being  appointed  by 
the  governor  as  in  Virginia. 

Throughout  the  West  the  mixed  form  of  township-county 
government  prevails,  sometimes  the  township,  sometimes 
the  county,  predominating.     The  influence  of  the  township 
is  especially  strong  in  the  Northwest,  where  there  Theinflu- 
is  a  large  New  England  population.     In  Michi-  the^town 
gan,  northern  Illinois,  and  other  parts    of   the  meeting 
Northwest,  the    town   meeting    still    manages    the  affairs 
of  the  township.     The  influence  of  the  town   meeting  in 
developing  a  strong  citizenship  has  been  very  great.     All 
voters    have  the  right  to  attend  and  to  take  part  in  the 
discussion    and  settlement  of  affairs.     Experience  shows 
that,  as  a  rule,  they  take  advantage  of  their  right.     Others 
besides  voters  often  attend  in  order  to  listen  to  the  discus- 
sions.    The  town  meeting  thus  becomes  a  school  of  instruc- 


194 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND  THE   CITIZEN 


tion  in  public  matters.     Nowhere  else  do  we  find  such 
general  interest  in  public  questions  as  in  the  parts  of  the 


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Court  House,  Detroit,  Mich. 


country  where  the  town  meeting  prevails.     It  encourages 
healthy,  active  citizenship. 

The  county  system  of  representative. government  is  more 


TOWNSHIP   AND  COUNTY  195 

practicable  throughout  the  West  than  the  township  with 
government  by  town  meeting.  The  country  is  ^j^^  ^^^^_ 
almost  wholly  agricultural  and  the  population  is  ship  in  the 
widely  scattered.  On  the  other  hand,  the  exist-  ®^* 
ence  of  the  congressional  townships  surveyed  by  the  na- 
tional government  to  aid  in  the  settlement  of  the  land  (see 
page  45),  suggested  that  n  they  be  adopted  as  civil  town- 
ships for  purposes  of  local  government.  Everywhere 
throughout  the  West,  therefore,  we  find  both  township  and 
county  governments  with  varying  relations  between  them. 
Even  in  the  South  the  counties  are  tending  to  break  up  into 
smaller  divisions  for  some  purposes  of  local  government, 
especially  in  connection  with  school  administration.  The 
principle  of  local  self-government  is  strong  among  the  peo- 
ple, and  they  prefer  the  smaller  township  to  the  county  as 
the  unit  of  government.  Except  in  the  Northwest,  how- 
ever, the  government  of  the  township  is  now  representative. 
It  is  in  the  hands  of  township  trustees,  who  correspond  to 
the  earlier  selectmen  ;  the  clerk,  who  keeps  the  records ; 
the  tax  assessors  and  collectors  ;  the  justice  of  the  peace, 
who  presides  over  the  township  court  for  the  trial  of  minor 
cases  ;  the  school  trustees  ;  the  overseers  of  the  poor  ;  and 
numerous  minor  officers.  At  the  present  time  the  most  im- 
portant matters  under  the  control  of  the  township  govern- 
ment are  the  schools,  the  roads,  and  the  poor. 

The  main  governing  body  of  the  county  is  the  board  of 
county  commissioners,  or  supervisors.  They  administer 
the  affairs  of  the  county  :  they  fix  the  rate  of  tax-  xhe  West- 
ation  ;  appropriate  money  for  the  building  and  ^^^  county 
repairing  of  public  buildings,  such  as  the  courthouse  and 
jail,  and  for  the  construction  of  roads  and  bridges;  and  ap- 
point subordinate  officials.  Every  county  has  its  court, 
which  is  of  higher  grade  than  the  township  justice  court,  and 


196  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

is  held  at  the  county  seat.  The  commands  of  the  court 
are  carried  out  by  the  sheriff,  who  also  maintains  order  in 
the  county  and  usually  has  charge  of  the  county  jail  and 
its  inmates.  There  are  various  other  officers;  among  whom 
are  the  county  treasurer,  the  tax  assessors  and  collectors, 
the  superintendent  of  schools,  the  clerk,  the  coroner,  and 
the  surveyor. 

In  those  states  where  the  township  has  the  chief  impor- 
tance in  local  government,  the  county  exists  for  little  more 
than  judicial  purposes.  In  other  states  the  county  govern- 
ment has  many  of  the  powers  which  the  township  govern- 
ment exercises  elsewhere.  There  seems  to  be  a  growing 
tendency  to  centralize  the  administration  of  many  local 
affairs  in  the  county  government,  or  at  least  to  give  the 
county  government  supervision  over  the  affairs  of  the 
townships.  This  is  seen  in  the  administration  of  the  schools 
and  of  roads.  This  supervision  secures  greater  uniformity 
and  efficiency  than  would  be  the  case  if  each  township  had 
exclusive  control  over  these  matters. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Is  the  township  or  the  county  the  more  important  division  for 
local  rural  government  in  your  state?     Can  you  explain  why? 

2.  Are  town  meetings  ever  held  in  your  state?  If  so,  have  you  ever 
attended  one?     Describe  the  meeting. 

3.  What  are  your  township  officers?  Make  a  list  of  them,  and  state 
their  duties. 

4.  How  are  the  various  township  officers  chosen? 

5.  Is  there  any  law-making,  or  legislative,  body  in  your  township? 
If  so,  with  what  kinds  of  things  do  its  laws  deal? 

6.  How  are  the  laws  enforced  in  your  township? 

7.  Are  there  any  courts  in  your  township?  If  so,  what  are  they? 
What  kinds  of  cases  do  they  try? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  your  county  officers.     State  their  duties. 

9.  How  are  the  county  officers  chosen? 

10.  What  legislative  body  is  there  in  your  county? 


TOWNSHIP   AND   COUNTY  1 97 

11.  What  executive  officers  are  there ? 

12.  Do  the  county  legislative  officers  have  any  executive  powers? 

13.  Are  there  any  county  courts  in  your  county?  What  kinds  of 
cases  do  they  try? 

■  14.   What  buildings  belong  to  your  county  and  township?     What 
are  their  uses  ? 

15.  Make  a  map  of  your  county,  showing  townships.  Notice  the 
shape  of  the  townships  and  the  county.  Do  their  boundaries  follow 
the  hnes  of  the  government  survey?  Explain  any  irregularities  in  the 
shape  of  the  townships.     Locate  tlie  county  seat. 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapter  X. 
Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XXVI-XXVIII. 
Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"   vol.  I,  chapters  XLVHI, 
XLIX  (abridged  edition,  chapters  XLVII,  XLVIII). 
Fiske,  "Civil  Government,"  chapters  II-IV. 
"  New  England  Town  Meeting  of  To-day,"   Outlook^    75  :  405-409 

(i903>- 

"Description  of  a  Town  Meeting,"  Outlook,  32  :  561-565  (1906). 
"Town  Meetings  for  Cities,"  Nation,  32  :  434  (1906). 
"  Brookline  and   Her  Government   by  Direct   Legislation,"  Arena, 
34:39-91  (1905). 


chaptp:r  XXII 

THE   GOVERNMENT  OF   THE   CITY 

The  growth  of  cities  in  the  United  States  has  been  very 
rapid.  In  1790,  when  the  first  census  was  taken,  there 
J.    .,  were  in  the  United  States  only  six  cities  with 

growth  of  a  population  of  8000  or  more.  The  largest, 
cities  Philadelphia,  had  but  28,500  people,  and  all  to- 

gether the  six  cities  contained  132,000  population.  In 
1900  there  were  546  cities  of  8000  population  or  more, 
comprising  a  total  of  25,000,000  people.  New  York  at 
the  last  census  had  nearly  three  million  and  a  half,  while 
Chicago,  which  was  founded  only  in  1830,  had  nearly  a 
million  and  three  quarters  population  In  1790  but  one 
thirty-third  of  the  total  population  of  the  country  lived  in 
cities ;  to-day,  cities  contain  one  third  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. 

Cities  have  brought  with  them  serious  problems  of  com- 
munity life  and  of  government.  Where  so  many  people 
Problems  of  ^^^  Crowded  together,  there  are  many  conflict- 
city  govern-  ing  interests.  Each  person  is  more  dependent 
"^®^*  on  others  for  his  well-being  than  is  the  case  in 

rural  communities.  The  mixed  character  of  the  population 
found  in  most  large  cities  also  presents  problems  difficult 
of  solution  (see  chapter  VII).  Other  problems  are  found 
in  the  distribution  of  the  population,  involving  the  question 
of  transportation  and  that  of  the  crqwded  tenement  dis- 
tricts. Still  other  difficulties  arise  from  the  rapid  growth  of 
cities  to  a  size  originally  unexpected.    .In  the  early  days  of 

198 


^  THE    GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   CITY  199 

Chicago,  for  example,  men  had  no  idea  that  it  would  ever 
be  a  great  city.  Care  is  not  taken,  under  such  circum- 
stances, to  plan  these  young  cities  for  the  accommodation 
of  future  crowds.  As  it  is,  American  cities  are  constantly 
being  made  over,  often  resulting  in  an  unsymmetrical  ap- 
pearance and  perhaps  in  great  inconvenience.  These  and 
other  problems  did  not  attract  much  attention  until  after 
the  Civil  War;  since  then  city  government  has  become 
one  of  the  greatest  problems  before  the  American  people. 

Cities,  like  counties  and  townships,  receive  their  right  of 
self  government  from  the  state.      Their  form  of  govern- 
ment and  the  powers  they  may  exercise  are  pre-  ^^.^.^g  ^^ 
scribed  in  a  charter  granted  by  the  legislature,   ceive  their 
just  as  some  of  the  colonies  received  charters  gefjlgovem- 
f rom  the  king.     The  city  does  not  always  have  ment  from 
even  the  right  of  ratifying  the  charter.     Since  *  ®  ^*^*^ 
the  charters  are  often  long  and  detailed,  and  since  the  leg- 
islature   usually   holds  the  right  to  change  them  at  will, 
the  amount  of  self-government  left  to  the  city  may  be  very 
Hmited.     This  control  over  the  details  of  the  business  of 
cities  by  state  legislatures  is  considered  one  of   control  by 
the    chief    obstacles  to  good    city  government,   legislature 
Legislators  from  all  parts  of  the  state,  many  of  them  from 
rural  districts,  cannot  know  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  city 
so  well  as  the  people  of  the  city  themselves.     Besides,  it 
is  much  easier  for  scheming   politicians  and  corrupt  cor- 
porations to  exercise  an  influence  over  a  few    legislators 
than  over  the  citizens  of  the  city. 

This  interference  by  state  legislatures  in  the  affairs  of 
cities   is  especially  great  when  the  legislature  Tendency 
grants  to  each  city  a  special  charter.     In  some   geW-^ov-^^*^ 
states   a   reform    has   been   made   by  enacting  ernment 
a  general  form   of  charter  for   all   cities  of  a  given  size. 


200 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


This  secures  uniformity,  and  prevents  to  some  extent 
constant  meddling  with  the  affairs  of  a  particular 
city.     A  more  important  step  toward  self-government  in 


■uditsA, 


itiiUHtfi 


■ir'iii. 


Copyright,  1906,  by  Detroit  Publishing  Co. 

City  Hall,  Boston,  Mass. 

cities  has  been  taken  in  a  few  states,  where  the  charter  is 
drafted  and  ratified  by  the  people  of  the  city  and  is  then 
submitted  to  the  legislature  for  its  approval.  The  National 
Municipal  League  a  few  years  ago  drew  up  a  model 
charter^  which  has  been  adopted  with  slight  variations  in 
a  number  of  cities. 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   CITY  20I 

The  form  of  government  of  cities  in  the  United  States 
is,  in  a  general  way,  alike  everywhere,  and  similar  to  that  of 
the  states  and  of  the  nation.     There  is  always 

,      .   ,      .        ,  ,  .       ,  .  .  The  general 

a  legislative  branch,  an  executive  branch,  and  a  form  of  city 
judicial  branch  of  government.  In  the  organi-  govern- 
zation  of  these  branches,  however,  and  in  their 
relations  to  each  other,  there  are  great  differences  among 
cities,  and  between  the  cities  and  the  state  and  national 
governments.  .  The  judicial  branch  of  city  governments 
consists  of  police,  or  justices',  courts ;  often  there  is  also  a 
superior  court.  These  are  a  part  of  the  state  judicial 
system,  and  will  be  mentioned  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  legislative  branch  of  city  government  is  the  council. 
Its  members  are  elected  by  the  people,  the  city  being 
divided  into  wards,  from  each  of  which  one  xhe  city 
or  more  representatives  are  chosen.  In  some  council 
cases  the  council  consists  of  two  chambers,  an  upper 
chamber,  or  board  of  aldermen,  and  a  lower  chamber,  or 
common  council.  The  upper  chamber  is  always  the  smaller. 
The  term  of  office  of  councilmen  is  short,  usually  one  or 
two  years.  Their  salaries  generally  are  small.  For  the 
transaction  of  business  the  council  is  organized  into 
committees,  such  as  the  committee  on  streets,  on  public 
buildings,  and  on  finance.  The  mayor  ordinarily  presides 
over  the  meetings  of  the  council,  and  sometimes  has  the 
power  to  veto  its  acts. 

The  council  does  not  have  great  powers  as  a  law-making 
body,  since  its  powers  extend  only  to  matters  of  local 
interest  that  are  not  regulated  by  state  law.  powers  of 
The  most  important  legislative  power  of  the  t^®  council 
council  is  that  of  controlHng  taxation  and  expenditures 
for  city  purposes.  In  many  cities  even  this  power  has 
been  placed  in  the  hands  of   a   special   board  of  estimates. 


202 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE  CITIZEN 


Another   important    power    of    the    council    is    that    of 
granti7ig  francJiises  (see  pages  50  and   112). 

The  executive  branch  of  city  governments  consists  of  a 
mayor,  together  with  a  number  of  administrative  boards  or 
Executive,  chiefs,  and  a  large  number  of  subordinate 
The  mayor  officials  and  employees.  The  mayor  is  now 
elected  by  popular  vote  in  all  cities,  for  a  term  varying 


'.t06,  hy  Detroit  rublishiny  Co. 

City  Hall,  Louisville,  Ky. 

from  one  to  five  years.     His  salary  also  varies  from  a  very 
small  sum  in  many  cities  to  $15,000  in  New  York  City. 

The  work  of  administering  the  business  of  a  large  city 
Administra-  ^^  ^°  great  and  so  complex  that  it  has  to  be  sub- 
tive  depart-  divided.  Hence  there  are  various  administrative 
"^®^*®  departments  under  the  supervision  of  chiefs  or 

boards.      Perhaps   the   most   important   of    these   is    the 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   CITY  203 

department  that  manages  the  money  affairs  of  the  city. 
There  is  always  a  treasurer,  and  sometimes  other  financial 
officers,  in  this  department.  We  have  heard  before  of  the 
health  department,  usually  managed  by  a  board  (see  page 
56) ;  the  fire  department  (page  68)  and  the  police  depart- 
ment (page  72),  both  of  which  are  sometimes  united  under 
the  supervision  of  a  board  of  safety ;  the  street  departmejit 
(page  in)  and  the  building  department,  which  are  also 
sometimes  combined  under  a  board  of  public  works.  The 
street-cleaning  department  (page  59)  is  often  separate 
from  the  street  department,  which  looks  after  the  con- 
struction and  repairing  of  the  streets.  The  department  of 
education  is  under  the  management  of  a  board  of  school 
commissioners  (page  122).  These  are  only  a  few  of  the  ad- 
ministrative branches  found  in  our  various  cities,  and  each 
one  of  these  is  subdivided  into  several  divisions  or  bureaus. 
Under  them  is  a  large  number  of  subordinate  officers  and 
employees. 

The  boards  and  chiefs  at  the  head  of  the  departments 
are  sometimes  elected  by  the  people,  and  sometimes  ap- 
pointed either  by  the  council,  or  the  mayor,  or, 

1111  r     1  Ti        Mingling  of 

occasionally,  by  the  governor  of  the  state,     ro-   legislative 
lice  commissioners  are  sometimes  appointed  by   ^^^  execu- 

r         rr  •         *^^®    pOWerS 

the  governor.  The  appointment  of  officers  is 
an  executive  duty,  and  when  it  is  done  by  the  council,  it 
gives  that  body  executive  duties  as  well  as  legislative.  In- 
deed, the  executive  departments,  such  as  those  of  streets  and 
buildings,  are  often,  especially  in  smaller  cities,  managed 
entirely  by  committees  of  the  council.  There  is  thus  not 
a  sharp  division  in  cities  between  the  legislative  and  the 
executive  branches  of  government,  such  as  we  find  in  state 
and  national  governments.  Not  only  does  the  council  ex- 
ercise  executive   powers,  but  some  of  the   administrative 


204  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

boards  have  legislative  powers.  Thus,  the  board  of  esti- 
mates (page  201)  exercises  the  important  legislative  power 
of  apportioning  taxes  and  expenditures.  The  school  board 
often  has  legislative  powers  of  some  importance. 

In  America  there    has  always  been  a   fear   of  giving 
any  one  man  too  much  power.     This  has  led  to  the  elec- 
tion by    popular   vote,  and  for  short  terms,  of 
tion  of  most  of  the  city  officers,  in  the  belief  that  by  so 

powers  in      doinsf  the  people  could  keep  their  hands  directly 

the  mayor  °        .      •    •  •  r    1         •      ,     i        •  t 

on  the  admmistration  01  the  city  s  busmess.     In 

the  complexity  of  the  affairs  of  a  city,  and  with  the  numer- 
ous officers  necessary  to  manage  them,  it  is  impossible  for 
the  people  to  hold  every  officer  responsible  to  themselves. 
When  anything  goes  wrong,  it  has  been  found  almost  im- 
possible to  fix  the  responsibility  on  any  one.  In  handUng 
the  vast  sums  of  money  necessary  in  city  government,  and 
in  the  granting  of  franchises  and  the  letting  of  contracts, 
there  is  abundant  opportunity  for  things  to  go  wrong. 
Therefore  the  tendency  has  been  growing  in  our  best 
governed  cities  to  give  the  mayor  full  power  to  appoint  his 
subordinates,  as  well  as  to  remove  them,  at  least  in  the 
case  of  the  more  responsible  positions,  and  then  to  hold 
him  responsible  for  the  acts  of  his  appointees. 

City  government  has   suffered  greatly  from  the  spoils 

system  (page   184).     When  a   new  mayor  is  elected,   he 

usually    appoints    new    boards    and    heads    of 

Political  1,1. 

parties  and  departments,  and  these,  in  turn,  too  frequently 
city  govern-  remove     subordinates     in     their     departments 

ment 

to  make  way  for  personal  or  political  friends. 
One  of  the  chief  causes  for  this  is  the  part  that  the 
national  pohtical  parties  take  in  city  elections.  National 
political  questions  have  no  place  in  city  elections.  Cities 
have  local  self-government  in  order  to  manage  their  local 


THE   GOVERNMENT    OF   THE   CITY  205 

business,  such  as  paving  streets,  granting  franchises,  pro- 
tecting property  and  health.  These  are  purely  business 
matters  that  demand  business  ability  and  honesty  on  the 
part  of  those  who  manage  them,  and  have  no  relation  to 
the  great  national  issues  that  divide  the  parties  against  each 
other.  The  national  parties  retain  their  hold  on  city  affairs 
partly  to  prevent  party  spirit  and  interest  from  flagging  in 
the  period  between  national  elections,  and  partly  to  have 
at  their  disposal  the  vast  number  of  city  offices  as  rewards 
for  faithful  party  workers  in  the  community.  The  result  of 
this  is  that  not  only  the  responsible  positions  at  the  head  of 
administrative  departments,  but  minor  positions,  such  as 
those  of  policemen  and  of  clerks  in  the  city  offices,  are  too 
often  filled  with  men  who  have  some  claim  on  the  party  in 
power,  but  very  little  on  the  confidence  of  the  people. 

Progress  is  now  being  made,  however,  in  the  direction  of 
removing  cities  from  partisan  control.  One  means  of  do- 
ing this  is  by  holding  city  elections  at  a  different  civil  service 
time  from  state  and  national  elections,  in  the  hope  reform 
of  avoiding  confusion  between  local  and  national  questions. 
More  important  than  this  is  the  introduction  of  the  merit 
system  in  the  appointment  of  city  officials  and  employees 
(see  page  184).  Good  city  government  cannot  be  expected 
until  those  who  carry  it  on  hold  their  positions  solely  on  the 
ground  of  efficiency  and  faithfulness  to  the  trust  reposed 
in  them. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  causes  have  led  to  the  rapid  growth  of  American  cities? 

2.  Investigate  your  city  charter  with  respect  to  the  following  points  : 
By  whom  was  it  drafted?  Did  the  people  of  the  city  have  any  voice 
in  determining  what  the  charter  should  contain?  Has  it  ever  been 
changed,  and  if  so,  how?  Is  it  a  special  charter  for  your  city  alone,  or 
is  it  a  general  charter,  like  that  of  other  cities  of  the  same  size? 

3.  Investigate  your  city  council  with  respect  to  the  following  points : 


206  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Has  it  one  or  two  chambers?  How  are  its  members  chosen?  How 
many  members  from  each  ward?  What  is  their  term  of  office?  What 
are  the  quahfications  for  councilmen?  What  is  their  salary?  Where 
and  how  often  do  they  meet?  Who  presides  at  its  meetings?  What 
are  the  important  committees  of  the  council? 

4.  How  is  the  mayor  of  your  city  chosen?  What  is  his  salary?  His 
term  of  office?  Is  the  mayor  of  your  city  often  reelected  for  a  second 
or  third  term  ? 

5.  Does  the  mayor  in  your  city  have  large  appointing  powers?  Does 
he  have  full  power  of  removal  from  office?  Is  he  held  responsible  for 
the  acts  of  the  various  administrative  departments?  Does  he  have  the 
veto  power  over  the  acts  of  the  council? 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  administrative  departments  of  your  city  govern- 
ment. Report  on  the  organization  of  each  department.  How  are  the 
heads  of  the  various  departments  chosen?  What  are  the  duties  of  each 
department  ? 

7.  Do  any  of  these  administrative  departments  have  legislative 
powers?     Does  the  council  have  any  executive  powers? 

8.  Ascertain  about  how  many  persons  are  employed  by  the  city 
government.  In  what  departments  do  you  find  the  largest  force  of 
employees? 

9.  Does  the  merit  system  of  appointment  prevail  in  your  city?  If 
so,  to  what  extent? 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapters  XI,  XII. 

Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapter  XXIX. 

Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  II,  chapters  L-LII 
(abridged  edition,  chapters  XLIX-LI). 

Goodnow,  "  City  Government  in  the  United  States,"  "  Municipal 
Problems." 

Conkling,  "  City  Government  in  the  United  States." 

Eaton,  "The  Government  of  Municipalities." 

Wilcox,  "  The  American  City." 

Fairlie,  "  Municipal  Administration." 

Howe,  "  The  City,  the  Hope  of  Democracy." 

On  state  control  of  cities,  see  : 

Goodnow,  "  City  Government  in  the  United  States,"  chapters  V,  VI. 

Wilcox,  "The  American  City,"  chapter  XI. 

Goodnow,  "  Municipal  Problems,"  chapter  IV. 

Review  of  Reviews,  9 :  682-684. 

•  On  national  parties  and  city  government,  see : 
Goodnow,  "  Municipal  Problems,"  chapter  VIII.  » 


THE  GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   CITY  20/ 

On  the  growth  of  cities  : 

Forum,  lo:  472-477  :   ^9  '•  737^45- 
Century   Magazine,  55  :  79-80. 
Municipal  Affairs,  3  :  534 ;  5  :  367. 
McClures,  17:  470. 
Review  of  Reviews,  22  :  650. 

For  the  model  charter  prepared  by  the  Committee  of  the  National 
Municipal  League,  see : 

A  Municipal  Program  (Macmillan). 

Public  Opinion,  27  :  684. 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  17:  431. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   STATE 

Each  state  in  the  Union  has  a  written  constitution. 
This  constitution  is  the  fundamental  law  of  the  state,  and 
state  con-  gives  to  the  government  its  form  and  powers, 
stitutions  jt  is  a  law  made  by  the  people  themselves,  is 
superior  to  any  law  made  by  the  government,  and  cannot 
be  changed  in  any  way  except  by  the  people  themselves. 
The  constitutions  of  the  original  thirteen  states  were 
adopted  when  these  states  declared  their  independence 
from  England,  and  took  the  place  of  the  colonial  charters 
which  had  been  granted  by  the  king.  They  were  a  sub- 
stitution of  self-government  for  government  by  the  king. 
The  other  states  adopted  their  constitutions  when  they 
entered  the  Union.  Each  state  constitution  was  framed 
by  a  convention  of  delegates  chosen  by  the  people  for  this 
purpose,  and  was  ratified,  in  most  cases,  by  a  vote  of  the 
people. 

The  constitution  provides  for  its  own  amendment  and 
revision  if  defects  appear,  or  if  conditions  change  to  such 
Amend-  ^^  extent  that  its  provisions  are  not  adequate, 
ment  and  Amendment  of  the  constitution  consists  merely 
revision  -^  changing  some  of  its  provisions ;  revision  is 
a  recasting  of  the  whole  constitution.  Both  processes  re- 
quire the  consent  of  the  voters  of  the  state.  Amendments 
are  usually  enacted  by  the  legislature  and  submitted  to  the 
vote  of  the  people  at  the   polls.     Revision  usually  takes 

208 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE    STATE  209 

place  by  means  of  a  convention  of  delegates  elected  by  the 
people  for  the  purpose.  The  revised  constitution  is  nearly 
always  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people.  In  some 
states  the  constitution  requires  the  legislature  to  give  the 
people  an  opportunity  to  revise  the  constitution  at  stated 
intervals,  say  every  ten  or  twenty  years. 

The  constitution  thus  represents  the  supreme  will  of  the 
people,  and  is  intended  to  prevent  any  encroachment  on 
their  rights  and  liberties  either  by  themselves  or  ^j^^  consti- 
by  the  government  which  the  constitution  creates,   tution  repre- 
One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  every  state   l^^^^^ 
constitution,  therefore,  is  the  di//  of  iHgJits,  which  win  of  the 
is  a  detailed  statement  of  the  rights  which  must  P^^'P® 
not  be  infringed  on  by  the  government.     In  almost  every 
state,  the  bill  of  rights  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the 
first  part  of  the  constitution. 

The  main  part  of  each  constitution  contains  the  plan  of 
government.  Although  the  governments  of  the  states 
differ  in  details  to  meet  the  peculiar  conditions  ^        ,  , 

^  General  plan 

of  each,  the  general  plan  is  the  same  in  all.  of  govem- 
The  federal  Constitution  guarantees  to  each  °^®^* 
state  a  republican  form  of  government  (Art.  IV,  sec.  4). 
In  each  state  there  is  a  division  of  the  government  into  a 
legislative,  an  executive,  and  a  judicial  branch,  and  the 
powers  of  each  branch  are  separated  from  those  of  the 
others  much  more  completely  than  is  usual  in  cities 
(page  203). 

As  we  learned  in  the  second  chapter,  a  community  con- 
sists of  a  group  of  people  united,  in   a  common  locality, 
under  cominoti  laws,  for  the  satisfaction  of  their   jhe  legis- 
common  interests.    There  must  be  a  laiv-making  Mature 
branch  of  government  first  of  all.     In  all  the  states  at  the 
present  time,  the  legislature  consists  of  two  chambers,  or 


210  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

houses.  The  upper  chamber,  or  senate,  is  usually  from 
one  third  to  one  half  the  size  of  the  lower  chamber,  or 
house  of  representatives.  In  the  two-chambered  legislature 
we  have  another  illustration  of  the  system  of  checks  and 
Checks  on  balances ;  for  every  bill,  or  proposed  measure, 
makkie"  niust  pass  each  house  separately  before  it  can 
power  become  a  law.     The  people  have  always  been 

afraid  of  the  law-making  power,  and  have  hedged  it  around 
with  restrictions  and  provisions  to  make  hasty  law-making 
difficult.  For  this  reason,  not  only  must  the  law  pass  each 
house  separately,  but  in  most  states  the  executive  is  given 
a  check  on  the  legislature  in  his  veto  power.  A  bill  to 
become  a  law  must  be  signed  by  the  governor.  If  he  dis- 
approves of  the  bill,  he  may  prevent  its  passage  by  vetoing 
it,  or  recording  his  vote  against  it.  In  every  state  but  one, 
however,  the  legislature  may  overcome  the  governor's  veto 
by  again  passing  the  bill,  usually  by  a  two  thirds  majority. 

The  members  of  the  legislature  are  chosen  by  popular 
vote.  In  many  of  the  states  the  legislature  meets  but  once 
in  two  years,  and  its  sessions  are  limited  to  a  period  of  from 
forty  to  ninety  days,  both  of  which  provisions  are  intended 
to  prevent  too  much  law-making.  The  lieutenant  governor 
usually  presides  over  the  senate,  while  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives elects  a  speaker  to  preside.  The  speaker  and 
the  president  of  the  senate  have  the  power  of  appointing 
the  committees  in  the  two  houses,  by  which  most  of  the 
business  of  law-making  is  done. 

The  law-making  power  of  the  legislature  extends  to  any 
Restriction  subject  whatever,  except  as  it  is  limited  by  the 
ontheiegis-  Constitution  (Art.  I,  sec.  lo),   the  laws,  and  the 

lature  by 

the  con-  treaties  of  the  United  States,  or  by  the  consti- 
stitution  tution  of  the  state.  The  earlier  state  constitu- 
tions were  short,  and  contained  few  restrictions  on    the 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   STATE 


211 


power  of  the  legislature.  But  partly  through  the 
love  of  the  people  for  direct  self-government,  and 
partly  because  of  a  growing  fear  of  the  power  of  legisla- 
tures, the  tendency  has  been  to  insert  more  details  in  the 


Indiana  State  House. 

constitutions  of  the  newer  states,  and  to  leave  less  to  the 
discretion  of  the  legislatures. 

Another  method  of  checking  the  power  of  the  legisla- 
ture, and  at  the  same  time  securing  more  direct  self-gov- 
ernment, is  by  the  plan  known  as  the  initiative  initiative 
and  the  referendum.  The  initiative  means  that  and  referen- 
the  people  have  the  power  to  initiate,  or  pro-  "™ 
pose,  legislation  which  the  legislature  must  enact.  By 
this  plan,  when  a  certain  percentage  of  the  voters  propose 
a  law  to  the  legislature,  the  latter  passes  the  law  and  then 
refers  it  to  the  vote  of  the  people  for  their  approval  or  dis- 
approval.   This  referring  the  law  to  the  vote  of  the  people 


212  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

is  the  referendum.  By  the  referendum,  also,  any  law  that 
has  been  passed  by  the  legislature  may  be  brought  before 
the  people  for  their  vote,  if  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
voters  demand  it.  This  plan  is  in  use  in  a  few  of  the 
Western  states. 

A  great  many  influences  are  brought  to  bear  on  state 
legislatures,  which  determine  more  or  less  completely  the 
Influence  on  character  of  the  laws  passed.  Legislation  is 
legislation  often  dictated  by  a  political  boss  (see  page  182), 
who  may,  in  turn,  be  the  representative  of  private  interests. 
Citizens  and  corporations  who  have  special  interests  which 
they  wish  the  legislature  to  favor  go,  or  send  their  repre- 
sentatives, to  the  legislative  halls  and  committee  rooms,  and 
try  to  bring  influences  to  bear  on  the  legislators  to  secure 
the  passage  of  the  desired  laws.     This  is  known  as  lobbying. 

Legislatures  watch  for  every  expression  of  public  opin- 
ion on  questions  that  come  before  them.  The  opinion  of 
Public  the  people  expressed  through  the  newspapers, 

opinion  y^y  pubHc  meetings,  or  by  personal  letters,  has  a 
great  influence.  This  is  one  of  the  strongest  safeguards  of 
self-government.  Law-makers  seldom  dare  to  meet  the  dis- 
approval of  the  people  when  it  is  clearly  and  strongly  ex- 
pressed. From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  responsibility  of 
the  citizen  for  his  own  self-government  does  not  end  when 
he  elects  his  representative  to  the  legislature.  He  must 
have  opinions  of  his  own  on  public  questions,  and  must 
make  them  known. 

Questions  are  constantly  arising  as  to  the  meaning  of 

the  law,  or  how  it  applies  to  a  particular  case.    To  decide 

such  questions  the  state  constitution  provides  a 
The  courts  ^      .  .       .         ,.,.,,  , 

system  of  courts,  constitutmg  the  judicial  branch 
of  government.  They  are  the  stronghold  of  the  citizen 
against  injustice. 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   STATE  213 

The  most  numerous  courts  are  the  justices'  courts,  at 
least  one  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  every  community, 
easily  accessible  to  the  people.  They  are  the  justices' 
lowest  grade  of  state  courts,  before  which  are  courts 
tried  petty  offenses  against  law  and  order  and  trifling  dis- 
putes over  property.  The  judges  who  pfeside  over  these 
courts  are  called  justices  of  the  peace.  In  cities  there  are 
other  courts  of  the  same  class,  known  2,^  police  courts ^  which 
are  made  necessary  by  the  great  number  of  misdemeanors 
committed  in  city  life. 

Next  above  the  justices'  courts  are  the  district,  or  cir- 
cuit, courts.  They  are  called  district  courts  because  the 
state  is  divided  into  judicial  districts  (see  page  District 
51),  each  of  which  has  a  single  court  of  this  courts 
grade.  They  are  called  circuit  courts  because  the  presid- 
ing judge  holds  the  court  first  in  one  county  of  the  dis- 
trict, and  then  in  another,  until  the  circuit  of  the  counties 
is  completed. 

It  is  before  the  circuit  or  district  courts  that  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  of  importance  are  brought  for  trial.  Many 
cases  first  tried  before  a  justice's  court  are  appealed  to  the 
district  court  for  a  second  trial.  This  is  because,  in  the  first 
place,  district  judges  are  more  able  and  better  trained  men 
than  the  justices  of  the  peace ;  and  because,  in  the  second 
place,  a  jury  trial  may  always  be  had  in  the  district  court. 
The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  provides  that  every 
man  shall  have  the  right  to  trial  by  jury  in  all  criminal  cases, 
and  in  civil  cases  involving  a  sum  of  more  than  ;^2o 
(Amendments  VI  and  VII). 

In  large  cities  there  are  often  criminal  courts,  and  other 
special  courts,  to  meet  the  needs  of  city  life,  and  to  relieve 
the  district  courts  of  a  portion  of  the  work  that  would 
otherwise  come  before  them.     In  some  states  there  is  also  a 


214  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN  ^- 

county  court  for  each  county,  besides  probate,  chancery. 
City  and        and  Other  courts,  for  the  trial  of  special  classes 

county 

courts  ot  cases. 

Each  state  has  one  supreme  court,  which  usually  holds 
its  sessions  at  the  state  capital,  although  for  convenience 
Supreme  it  Sometimes  holds  sessions  in  other  cities.  It 
court  consists    of   several  judges,    who  are    presided 

over  by  a  chief  justice.  The  work  of  this  court  is  almost 
altogether  appellate ;  that  is,  the  cases  tried  before  it  are 
usually  appealed  to  it  from  the  lower  courts.  There  are, 
however,  certain  classes  of  cases  that  come  before  the 
supreme  court  for  first  trial,  such  as  cases  in  which  the 
official  action  of  state  officers  is  in  question. 

In  the  first  constitutions  of  the  original  thirteen  states 
it  was  provided  that  the  judges  should  be  appointed  by 
TheaoDoint-  ^^  governor  or  chosen  by  the  legislature.  As 
ment  of  the  movement  toward  a  more  democratic  govern- 
ju  ges  merit  grew,  the  states  began  to  provide  for  the 

election  of  their  judges  by  the  people.  In  most  of  the 
states,  at  the  present  time,  the  judges  are  so  chosen, 
though  in  some  they  are  appointed  by  the  governor  and  in 
others  by  the  legislature.  The  election  of  the  judges  by 
the  people,  at  the  same  time  with  other  state  officers,  tends 
to  make  their  selection  a  matter  of  party  politics.  This  is 
especially  true  when  they  are  elected  for  short  terms,  as  is 
usually  the  case.  The  courts  should  be  entirely  removed 
from  partisan  disputes,  and  this  is  best  accomplished  by 
a  life  tenure  of  office,  as  is  the  case  in  the  federal  courts. 

As  in  city  governments,  the  executive  branch  of  state 
government  is  divided  and  subdivided  into  numerous  de- 
Theexecu-  partments,  bureaus,  and  commissions.  The 
*iv®  chief  executive  officer  is  the  governor,  who  is 

elected  by  the  people,   and  whose  term  of   office   varies 


THE   GOVERNMENT    OF   THE    STATE  21$ 

from  one  to  four  years.  His  chief  duty  is  to  see  that  the 
laws  of  the  state  are  faithfully  executed.  As  we  have 
seen  (page  165),  the  enforcement  of  state  law  is  left  largely 
in  the  hands  of  the  local  governments.  In  case  of  in- 
ability on  the  part  of  local  authorities  to  enforce  the  law, 
the  governor  may  come  to  their  aid  with  the  militia,  of 
which  he  is  the  commander-in-chief  (see  page  75). 

The  governor  has  other  powers  and  duties.  'Among 
these  are  the  legislative  powers  of  vetoing  bills,  already 
mentioned,  and  of  suo^s^estina:  matters  for  lecris-  ^^ 

00  o  '^         The  powers 

lative  action  in  a  message  to  the  legislature,  of  the  gov- 
He  usually  has  full  power  to  pardon  criminals  ®'^**' 
convicted  in  the  courts,  although  this  power  is  in  some 
states  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of  pardons.  He  has 
the  power  of  appointment  to  office  in  cases  not  otherwise 
provided  for  in  the  constitution.  This  power  and  that 
of  removal  from  office  are  often  restricted  by  requiring 
that  appointments  and  removals  must  be  confirmed  by  the 
legislature. 

In    most   of  the  states  there  is   a  lieutenant  governor, 
whose  chief  duty  is  to  preside  over  the  senate.     He  acts 
as  governor  when  the  latter  is  absent  from  the  Lieutenant 
state,  or  is  unable  to  perform  his  duties.     In   governor 
case  of  the  governor's  death  he  succeeds  to  the  office. 

The  most  important  of  the  other  executive  officers  are 
the  treasurer  ;  the  auditor  {ox  comptroller^,  who  manages  the 
financial  affairs  of  the  state,  and  instructs  the   ^.    ,     , 

\.n^  heads 

treasurer  what  moneys  to  pay  out;  the  secretary  of  depart- 
of  state,  who  keeps  the  records  of  the  state  ;  the   ™®"*^ 
attorney-general,  who  is  the  legal  adviser  of  the  executive 
heads,  and  represents  the  state  in  court ;  and  the  superin- 
tendent of  schools.    These  officers  are  usually  elected  by  the 
people,  and  are  responsible  to  the  people  and  not  to  the 


2l6  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

governor.  This  method  of  choosing  officers  was  intended 
g  .  to  give  the  people  more  direct  control  over 
responsibii-  the  executive  business  of  the  state,  and  to  pre- 
**^  vent   the   governor   from    assuming    too    much 

power.  In  reality  it  weakens  the  executive,  for  it  divides 
responsibility. 

Besides  these  executive  departments  there  are  numerous 
bureaus  and  commissions  for  the  administration  of  dif- 
Other  ad-  f^rent  kinds  of  state  business.  There  are  boai^ds 
ministrative  of  health,  boards  of  charities  and  correction,  fish 
ivisions  conimissio7is,  forestry  bureaus,  and  railway  com- 
missions. There  are  boards  of  trustees  for  the  various 
state  institutions,  such  as  the  institutions  for  the  insane, 
the  blind,  and  orphans.  There  are  state  librarians,  state 
geologists,  mine  inspectors,  and  other  officers  too  numerous 
to  mention.  These  officers  are  usually  appointed  by  the 
governor  or  by  the  legislature.  Beneath  them  is  a  host  of 
minor  officials  and  employees. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Report  on  the  first  constitutional  convention  of  your  state. 

2.  Has   your    state    constitution   ever  been   revised?      How    many 
times?     How  was  it  done? 

3.  How  many  amendments  have  been  made  to  your  state  constitu- 
tion?    What  is  the  method  of  amendment  provided  in  your  constitution? 

4.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  legislature.     How  often  does  it 
meet?     How  long  are  its  sessions? 

5.  What  restrictions  are  placed  on  the  legislature  by  Art.  I,  sec.  10, 
of  the  federal  Constitution  ? 

6.  Is  the  legislature  in  your  state  positively  forbidden  to  do  certain 
things  by  the  state  constitution?     What  are  they? 

7.  What  different  courts  exist  in  your  state? 

8.  How  are  jurymen  selected? 

9.  If  you  live  in  a  large  city,  what  special  city  courts  exist  there? 

10.  How  are  the  state  judges  chosen  in  your  state?    What  is  their 
term  of  office? 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   STATE  217 

1 1 .  Debate  the  question,  "  The  judges  of  the  state  courts  should  be 
appointed  by  the  governor  for  life." 

12.  What  are  the  executive  departments  in  your  state?     How  are  their 
heads  chosen? 

13.  Does  the  governor  of  your  state  have  the  pardoning  power,  or 
is  there  a  board  of  pardons?     Is  the  pardoning  power  often  exercised? 

14.  Does  the  governor  of  your  state  often  exercise  the  veto  power? 
How  may  a  bill  be  passed  over  his  veto  ? 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapters  VI-IX. 
Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XXII-XXIV. 
Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  II,  part  II. 
On  the  initiative  and  the  referendum,  see  : 

Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  I,  chapter  XXXVIII. 
Review  of  Reviews,  20 :  225-226. 

At  ct'a,ij:  711-^21;  18:613-627;  22:97-110,725-739;  24:47-52,493-505;  25: 
317-323- 

Copies  of  the  state  constitution  should  be  available. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

THE   GOVERNMENT   OF  THE   NATION 

The  American  colonists  sought  their  independence  be- 
cause of  the  despotism  of  king  and  parliament,  and  they 

had  instilled  in  them  a  fear  and  hatred  of  a 
nes^so^^^he  powerful  centralized  government.  When  they 
govern-  declared  their  independence,  therefore,  it  was  as 
the  Articles  thirteen  states,  independent  of  each  other  as 
of  Confeder-  ^gll  as  of  England.     They  did  create  a  central 

government  under  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion ;  but  this  government  was  only  for  purposes  of  com- 
mon defense.  It  had  no  power  to  tax  the  people ;  it  had 
no  executive  authority  to  compel  them  to  do  its  bidding. 
The  experience  of  the  people  under  the  Confederation 
taught  them  that  there  were  common  interests  among  the 
states  that  were  not  being  protected,  and  conflicting  inter- 
ests that  were  rapidly  leading  to  disunion  and  anarchy 
(page  94).  They  discovered  the  truth  that  no  government 
is  even  worse  than  a  despotic  government. 

A  convention  of  leading  men  was  therefore  called  in 
1787  for  the  purpose  of  amending  the  weak  points  of  the 
The  consti-  ^^ticles  of  Confederation.  These  Articles  pro- 
tutionai         vided  that  no  amendment  could  be  made  without 

the  unanimous  consent  of  the  states ;  and  this 
could  not  be  obtained  from  the  jealous  and  quarreHng 
states.  In  this  extremity  the  wise  leaders  of  the  conven- 
tion  determined   to   frame   an  entirely  new  constitution, 

218 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   NATION  219 

totally  changing  the  form  of  government,  and  to  submit  it 
to  the  people  for  their  acceptance  or  rejection.  This  they 
did ;  and  after  the  greatest  difficulty  the  new  Constitution 
was  ratified  by  a  sufficient  number  of  states  to  make  it 
binding  on  them.  It  was  in  reality  another  revolution, 
though  accomplished  peacefully  and  in  order. 

The  first  great  problem  that  the  convention  had  to  solve 
was  the  creation  of  a  government  strong  enough  to  protect 
the  common  interests  of  all  the  states,  while  not  Distribution 
so  powerful  as  to  destroy  their  independence.  °^  powers 
This  problem  was  solved  by  the  carefully  adjusted  distribu- 
tion of  powers  referred  to  on  page  163.  First,  there  were  cer- 
tain powers  granted  exclusively  to  the  federal  government , 
such  as  to  make  war  and  peace,  to  make  treaties  and  alli- 
ances, to  send  and  receive  ambassadors,  to  regulate  foreign 
and  interstate  commerce,  to  coin  money,  and  some  others. 
Second,  there  were  certain /^zt'^ri"  to  be  exercised  concurrently 
by  both  state  and  national  governments,  such  as  the  power 
of  taxation  and  of  borrowing  money.  Third,  there  were 
pozvers  denied  to  tJie  federal  government  (see  Art.  I,  sec.  9 ; 
Amendments  I-VIII).  Fourth,  there  were  powers  denied 
to  the  states  (Art.  I,  sec.  10).  Fifth,  all  "  powers  not 
delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution  nor  pro- 
hibited by  it  to  the  states  are  reserved  to  the  states  respec- 
tively or  to  the  people  "  (Amendment  X). 

In  the  general  plan  of  the  national  government  the  con- 
vention was  influenced  by  the  plan  of  the  state  governments. 
Provision  was  therefore  made  for  a  legislative,  an  executive, 
and  a  judicial  branch,  with  the  same  separation  of  powers 
that  is  found  in  the  states. 

The  question  at  once  arose  as  to  the  basis  of  representa- 
tion in  the  Congress,  which  was  to  consist  of  two  houses. 
Some  of    the  delegates,  representing  the  smaller  states, 


220  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 

believed  that  all  the  states  should  have  equal  rep- 
Representa-  resentation,  thus  keeping  prominent  the  idea  that 

tion  in  .  ,  -r^    i 

Congress  the  Union  was  a  mere  league  of  states.  Dele- 
gates from  the  larger  states,  on  the  other  hand,  arguing 
that  the  states  together  constituted  a  single  nation,  believed 
that  the  several  states  should  be  represented  in  proportion 
to  their  population.  The  contest  was  settled  by  a  com- 
promise, according  to  which  each  state  was  to  have  two 
representatives  in  the  Senate,  and  proportional  representa- 
tion in  the  House  of  Representatives.  According  to  the 
apportionment  following  the  census  of  1900,  there  is  one 
representative  for  every  194,182  people,  making  a  total  of 
386  members  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  are  elected 
by  direct  vote  of  the  people,  one  from  each  of  the  congres- 
sional districts  into  which  each  state  is  divided. 
^*^d  th^**^  The  number  of  congressionar  districts  in  each 
House  of  state  is  determined  by  the  population  of  the  state 
Represen-      ^^  ^-^^  most  recent  census.     The  members  of  the 

tatives 

Senate  are  considered  as  representing  their  states, 
rather  than  the  people.  It  was  provided  that  they  should 
be  elected  by  the  state  legislatures  (Art.  I,  sec.  3).  This 
method  of  election  was  also  probably  designed  to  secure 
an  abler  set  of  men  than  would  be  likely  by  popular  elec- 
tion. A  higher  age  qualification  was  fixed  for  membership 
in  the  Senate  than  in  the  House  (Art.  I,  sec.  2,  clause  2; 
sec.  3,  clause  3).  The  term  of  office  of  senators  is  six  years, 
while  that  of  representatives  is  only  two.  The  term  of 
office  of  only  one  third  of  the  senators  expires  at  the  same 
time,  so  that  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  is  always 
experienced,  while  the  House  may  be  almost  entirely  made 
over  at  any  election.  These  and  other  causes  have  made 
the  Senate  a  more  dignified  and  conservative  body  than 
the  House  of  Representatives. 


THE    GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   NATION  221 

The  greater  conservatism  of  the  Senate  was  intended,  in 
part,  as  a  check  on  the  impetuosity  of  the  direct  representa- 
tives of  the  people,  and,  in  part,  to  fit  it  for  its 

,      .       '        /      ^  Powers  of 

Special  executive  duties.      1  lie  ben  ate  must  con-   the  Senate 

firm  all  appointments   made   by  the  President,   ^^  *^® 

House 
and  must,  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  ratify  all  treaties 

made  by  the  President  before  they  can  go  into  effect  (Art. 
II,  sec.  2).  The  Senate  moves  more  slowly  in  its  delibera- 
tions than  the  House,  takes  more  time  for  debate,  and 
exercises  a  steadying  influence*  on  the  lower  and  more 
numerous  body.  On  the  other  hand,  the  House  serves  as 
a  check  on  the  Senate  and  has  certain  powers  not  held  by 
the  latter.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in 
the  House,  although  the  Senate  may  suggest  amendments 
to  them  (Art.  I,  sec.  7).  All  other  bills  may  originate,  in 
either  house,  but  must  pass  each  house  separately.  The 
House  has  the  sole  power  of  impeachment;  but  the  Senate 
must  act  as  the  court  to  try  the  impeachment  (Art.  I,  sec.  2, 
clause  5  ;  sec.  3,  clause  6).  Four  judges,  one  President, 
and  one  Secretary  of  War  have  been  impeached  by  the 
House  of  Representatives  -in  our  history,  but  only  in  the 
cases  of  two  of  the  judges  did  the  Senate  convict. 

It  is  believed    by    many    that    the    present   method   of 
electing  senators  should  be  changed  to  election  by  popu- 
lar vote.     This  feeling  is  due,  in  part,  to  the  gen-  j^g^^o^  ^f 
eral  growth  of  a  democratic  spirit;  but  it  is  also  electing 
due  to  certain  more  or  less  serious  evils  that  ^®^**°^^ 
have  grown  up  about  the  present  method.     The  election  in 
state   legislatures   frequently   becomes  a  partisan  contest, 
sometimes  managed  by  bosses  who  are  under  the  control 
of  private  interests.     Such  a  contest  may  take  much  of 
the   time   of   the   legislature   that   should   be  devoted   to 
other  business.     On  several  occasions  an  amendment  has 


222  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

been  proposed  in  the  House  of  Representatives  providing 
for  the  election  of  senators  by  popular  vote,  but  the  Senate 
would  not  agree  to  it,  and  therefore  the  amendment  failed. 
In  a  number  of  the  states  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  ac- 
complish the  same  end  without  an  amendment,  by  having 
the  people  vote  for  their  choice  of  senators  previous  to  their 
election  by  the  legislature.  This  amounts  to  a  direct  nomi- 
nation by  the  people,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  legisla- 
ture, being  representative  of  the  people,  will  feel  bound  to 
elect  the  people's  choice. 

Both  houses  of  Congress  are  organized  into  a  large 
number  of  committees,  by  which  most  of  the  work  of 
c  mmittees  legislation  is  done.  Every  bill  that  is  proposed 
and  the  in  either  house  is  referred  to  its  appropriate 
speaker  committee,  where  it  is  considered.  If  the  com- 
mittee disapproves  of  the  bill,  nothing  more  may  be  heard  of 
it.  If  the  committee  approves,  the  bill  is  brought  before 
the  House  to  be  voted  on.  Each  house  usually  votes  in 
accordance  with  the  recommendation  of  the  committee. 
In  the  Senate  the  committees  are  elected  by  the  members  of 
the  Senate.  In  the  House  of  Representatives  the  committees 
are  appointed  by  the  speaker,  who  is  the  presiding  officer 
elected  by  the  members  of  the  House.  The  speaker  is 
one  of  the  most  influential  men  in  our  government  because, 
through  his  power  to  appoint  the  committees,  he  may  de- 
termine what  legislation  shall  be  considered  and  enacted. 
He,  of  course,  represents  the  majority  party  in  the  House, 
and  sees  to  it  that  his  party  has  a  majority  in  every 
committee. 

One  of  the  chief  defects  of  the  government  under  the 
The  execu-  Articles  of  Confederation  was  the  lack  of  a  strong 
tive  executive.     Yet  the  memory  of  the  despotism  of 

the  king  caused  opposition,  in  the  convention  of  1787,  to 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   NATION  223 

the  establishment  of  a  single  executive  head.  Experience 
in  the  state  governments,  however,  had  shown  that  a  single 
executive  head  was  not  dangerous  if  his  powers  were  prop- 
erly limited  and  checked.  The  result  was  that  the  executive 
branch  of  the  national  government  was  made  to  consist  of 
a  President,  with  a  short  term  of  four  years,  who  shall  be 
remov^able  from  office  by  impeachment  if  he  ventures  to 
assume  powers  not  conferred  on  him.  A  Vice-President  also 
was  created,  who,  however,  has  no  executive  powers  except 
in  the  event  of  the  President's  death,  when  he  assumes 
that  office.  He  is  presiding  officer  over  the  Senate,  but 
he  has  no  vote  in  legislation  except  in  case  of  a  tie.  The 
President  and  the  Vice-President  are  elected  by  the  peculiar 
electoral  system  described  on  page  174  (Constitution, 
Art.  II,  sec.  i,  and  Amendment  XII).  This  method,  origi- 
nally intended  to  remove  the  choice  from  the  control  of  the 
masses,  fails  to  do  so,  and  is  now  a  mere  form  because 
of  the  development  of  the  party  system  of  making 
nominations. 

Although  in  the  states  the  executive  power  is  divided 
among  the  governor  and  other  officers  (see  page  216),  in 
the  national  government  it  is  concentrated  com-   ^ 

*^  Concentra- 

pletely  in  the  hands  of  the  President.  The  heads  tion  of  exec- 
of  the  executive  departments  are  appointed  by  the  "*^^®  power 
President  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  (Art. 
II,  sec.  2,  clause  2)  and  are  removable  by  him.  They  are 
responsible  to  him  alone,  and  carry  out  the  policy  of  gov- 
ernment dictated  by  him.  If  anything  goes  wrong  in  any 
of  the  executive  departments,  the  people  hold  the  President 
responsible  for  it,  and  may  show  their  disapproval  at  the 
next  election. 

The  President's  power  to  make  appointments,  Hke 
his  power  to  make  treaties  with  foreign  nations,  is  limited 


224  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

by  requiring  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate. 
^  On  the  other  hand,  the  President  has  a  check  on 

The  power  ' 

of  thePres-    legislation  in  his  veto  power,  although  Congress 

ident  ^^y.  pg^gg  ^  jg^^  Q^gj.  ^j^g  President's  veto  by  a 

two-thirds  vote.  The  veto  power  of  the  President  was 
intended  to  prevent  Congress  from  going  beyond  the  powers 
granted  to  it  in  the  Constitution.  It  has  often  been  exer- 
cised, however,  merely  because  the  President  disapproved 
the  measure  enacted  by  Congress.  The  President  has 
exercised  the  veto  power  much  more  in  recent  years  than 
formerly.  Congress  very  rarely  passes  a  law  over  the 
President's  veto.  The  President  has  some  further  influ- 
ence in  legislation  by  his  power  to  call  extra  sessions 
of  Congress  and  through  his  messages  to  Congress,  in 
which  he  suggests  questions  that,  in  his  opinion,  demand 
legislative  action. 

In  the  appointment  of  the  subordinate  officers  and  employ- 
ees of  the  civil  service,  Congress,  and  especially  the  Senate, 
Encroach-  is  accuscd  of  encroaching  on  the  powers  of  the 
thrpresi-  President.  The  latter,  in  seeking  for  suitable 
dent's  ap-  persons  to  fill  the  thousands  of  places  at  his  dis- 
power?y  posal  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  has  naturally 
Congress  come  to  depend  largely  on  the  senators  and 
representatives  from  the  different  sections  for  information 
regarding  the  qualifications  of  the  candidates.  Because  of 
this,  the  members  of  Congress  have,  in  the  course  of  time, 
assumed  the  right  to  make  nominations  for  these  offices, 
and  expect  the  President  to  accept  their  suggestions.  The 
President  has  often  been  forced  to  accede  to  the  wishes 
of  congressmen  in  the  matter  of  appointment  by  their 
refusal  to  enact  legislation  that  he  wishes  unless  he  does 
accede. 

In  this  way  the  Congress  has,  in  a  measure,  taken  upon 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE    NATION  225 

itself  some  of  the  powers  that  belong  to  the  President. 
Generally  speaking,  this  has  lowered  the  efficiency  of  the 
civil  service  by  encouraging  the  spoils  System.  This  evil 
has,  in  part,  been  checked  by  the  introduction  of  the  merit 
system  of  appointment  to  a  large  proportion  of  the  offices 
in  the  civil  service  (see  page  184).  There  is  still,  however, 
much  need  for  reform  in  this  direction.  It  is  a  dangerous 
thing  to  allow  one  branch  of  our  government  to  encroach 
on  the  powers' of  another,  and  citizens  should  rebuke 
any  tendency  of  this  kind. 

The  Constitution  provides  for  a  system  of  federal  courts 
entirely  distinct  from  the  state  courts.  It  says,  ''The  judi- 
cial power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  xhe  judi- 
in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  "^ry 
courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and 
establish"  (Art.  Ill,  sec.  i).  The  number  of  judges  in 
the  Supreme  Court  is  determined  by  Congress,  and  at 
present  is  nine.  They  meet  at  Washington  and  are  pre- 
sided over  by  one  of  their  number,  who  is  designated  as 
the  Chief  Justice.  In  addition  to  the  Supreme  Court,  Con- 
gress has  created  ni7ie  circint  courts y  each  circuit  including 
several  states  ;  nine  circuit  courts  of  appeal ;  and  eighty  dis- 
trict courts.  The  judges  of  all  the  federal  courts  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and  hold  office  "  during  good 
behavior"  (Art.  Ill,  sec.  i). 

The  powers  of  the  federal  courts  are  stated  in  the  Con- 
stitution (Art.  Ill,  sec.  2).  In  general,  they  may  be  said 
to  include  cases  of  a  national  or  interstate  charac-  t,  r 

Powers  of 

ter.     A  case  first  brought  to  trial  before  a  state   the  federal 
court  may  be  appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court  of   ^°"^*^ 
the  United  States  when  the  Constitution,  the  laws,  or  the 
treaties  of  the  United  States  are  involved.     Its  decisions 
are  final  over  those  of  the  state    courts.     It  is   the  final 


226  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

authority  (under  the  people  themselves)  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Constitution.  It  may  declare  null  and  void  an 
act  of  Congress  or  any  state  law,  which,  in  its  opinion,  is 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution.  It  might 
seem  that  the  Supreme  Court  thus  has  power  which  might 
make  it  despotic,  and  give  it  control  over  the  other  branches 
of  the  government ;  but  it  has  no  means  of  enforcing  a 
despotic  judgment.  That  must  be  done  by  the  executive. 
If  the  court  should  attempt  to  push  its  authority  too  far,  it 
would  find  itself  in  conflict  with  both  Congress  and  the 
executive.  At  the  elections  the  people  would  show  whether 
they  supported  the  court  or  the  other  branches  of  govern- 
ment. And,  finally.  Congress  has  the  weapon  of  impeach- 
ment by  which  offending  judges  may  be  removed. 

The  Supreme  Court  has  excited  the  admiration  of  the 
world,  not  only  because  of  its  purpose  as  defender  of  the 
Constitution,  but  because  of  the  ability  and  integrity  its 
judges  have  shown  in  performing  their  duty.  It  has  always, 
with  one  or  two  possible  exceptions,  shown  a  strong  dis- 
position to  render  its  opinions  in  accordance  with  the 
intentions  of  the  Constitution,  and  thus  to  be  strictly  repre- 
sentative of  the  people. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Report  on  the  story  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787. 
Also  on  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  the  states. 

2.  Study  the  organization  of  Congress  as  provided  in  the  Constitu- 
tion. 

3.  Report  on  the  powers  of  the  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. 

4.  Why  should  bills  for  the  raising  of  revenue  originate  in  the 
House? 

5.  Debate  the  question,  ''  Senators  should  be  elected  by  popular 
vote." 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  powers  of  the  President  as  contained  in  the 
Constitution. 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE    NATION  22/ 

7.  What  are  the  several  executive  departments?     What  are  their 
duties?     Who  are  the  members  of  the  cabinet  at  the  present  time? 

8.  Study  the  powers  of  the  federal  courts  as  given  in  the  Constitu- 
tion. 

9.  Make  as  complete  a  list  as  possible  of  the  different  checks  and 
balances  provided  in  the  organization  of  the  federal  government. 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapters  XIH-XVII. 
Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XVI-XXI. 
Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  I,  part  I. 
Fiske,  "  The  Critical  Period  of  American  History,"  chapters  VI,  VII 
(the  framing  and  ratification  of  the  Constitution). 
On  the  popular  election  of  Senators,  see  : 
Arena,  10 :  451-561 ;  27  :  455-467. 
Outlook,  61 :  27-34. 
Review  of  Reviezvs,  26 :  644-645. 
Independent,  54:  1672-1674  ;  55  :  106-107. 
Atlantic  Monthly,  68  :  227-234. 
Haynes,  George  H.,  "  The  Election  of  Senators  "  (Holt,  1906). 

Follett,  Mary  P.,  "  The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives." 
McConachie,  L.  G.,  "Congressional  Committees." 


CHAPTER   XXV 

HOW   THE   EXPENSES   OF   GOVERNMENT   ARE   MET 

All  this  machinery  of  government,  and  all  the  work 
that  it  does  for  the  people,  costs  the  people  a  great  deal. 
The  thousands  of  citizens  who  are  employed  in  conduct- 
ing the  affairs  of  government  must  be  paid  for  their 
services  —  although  there  are  some  offices  to  which  no 
salaries  are  attached.  There  must  be  office  buildings 
for  the  transaction  of  public  business,  such  as  post  offices, 
capitol  buildings,  and  courthouses.  Schoolhouses,  parks, 
hospitals,  and  prisons  must  be  paid  for.  Materials  must 
be  bought  and  workmen  employed  to  build  navies,  to 
construct  roads  and  bridges,  to  pave  streets  and  lay 
sewers,  and  to  do  the  many  other  things  that  govern- 
ment does  for  us.  Occasionally,  some  great  emergency 
arises,  like  a  war,  which  demands  enormous  sums  of 
money. 

The  cost  of  the  national  government  each  year  is  about 
six  times  the  cost  of  all  the  state  governments  together ; 
The  CO  tof  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  local  governments  throughout 
govern-  the  country  is,  each  year,  more  than  that  of 
^®°*  the   national   and  state    governments    together. 

This  may  be  surprising ;  but  it  is  due  to  the  costliness 
of  paving  streets,  maintaining  pohce  and  fire  departments 
and  the  pubHc  schools,  and  of  making  the  many  improve- 
ments necessitated  by  the  rapid  growth  of  our  cities. 
The  immense  cost  of  our  governments  is  beyond  our 
powers    of   imagination.      It   may   be  roughly   stated    as 

228 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT       229 

about  ;^  1,500,000,000.  It  may  help  you  to  understand 
this  enormous  sum  of  money  if  you  will  calculate  how  long 
it  would  take  a  man  to  count  it,  supposing  that  he  works 
constantly  eight  hours  a  day,  and  counts  $  i  every  sec- 
ond, or  $60  a  minute. 

This  great  sum  of  money  must  be  raised  each  year. 
The  people  of  each  local  community  —  township,  county, 
or  city  —  must  pay  the  expense  of  their  local  government; 
the  people  of  the  whole  state  unite  in  paying  the  expense 
of  the  state  government;  and  the  people  of  the  nation 
contribute  to  the  expenses  of  the  national  government. 
They  do  this  chiefly  by  paying  taxes. 

Taxes  are  a  contribution  that  the  people  are  required  by 
the  government  to  pay  to  meet  the  cost  of  the  government. 
The  people  have  never  enjoyed  paying  taxes.  The  gov- 
ernment seems  to  put  its  hand  into  their  pockets  and 
take  what  belongs  to  them.  Taxation  has  often  seemed 
an  act  of  oppression,  and  it  may  become  so  when  it  is  im- 
posed on  the  people  without  their  consent,  and  when  it  is  for 
purposes  other  than  their  own  welfare.  Very  ^^^  . 
Hght  taxes  imposed  on  the  American  colonists  notoppres- 
by  the  English  government  without  their  consent  ^^^^ 
seemed  oppressive  to  them  and  led  to  the  Revolution. 
We  should  not  consider  taxation  by  our  government  as 
an  act  of  oppression  because,  in  the  first  place,  the  people, 
being  self-governing,  tax  themselves ;  and  because,  in  the 
second  place,  the  taxes  are  spent  for  the  benefit  of  the  peo- 
ple themselves.  It  is  only  just  that  a  person  shall  pay  for 
what  he  gets.  He  has  no  more  right  to  complain  about 
paying  for  the  protection  and  benefit  that  he  receives  from 
the  government  than  he  has  to  complain  about  paying  the 
carpenter  for  building  his  house  —  provided,  of  course, 
that  the  government  doe'^s  its  work  well  and  in  accordance 


230  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

with  the  will  of  the  people.  It  is  true  that  taxation,  even 
in  our  country  at  the  present  time,  may  sometimes  be  un- 
wise, and  may  weigh  unjustly  upon  some  people  for  reasons 
that  will  be  mentioned  later  in  the  chapter ;  but  as  a  rule, 
the  amount  that  each  person  has  to  pay  to  the  government 
in  taxes  is  insignificant  in  proportion  to  the  great  benefit 
that  he  receives. 

The  American  colonies  objected  to  taxation  by  the  Eng- 
lish government  because  they  had  no  voice  in  the  matter. 
Each  colony  believed  that  it  should  have  the  right  to  levy 
•  ht  f  ^^^  °^^  taxes  through  its  representatives  in  the 
seif-taxa-  colonial  legislature.  After  they  had  won  their 
fidera?^  *^®  independence  they  still  objected  to  giving  up 
govern-  the  right  of  self-taxation  even  to  the  central 
™®^*  government  of  the   Confederation.     When  the 

Congress  needed  money,  even  to  carry  on  the  war  for  in- 
dependence, it  could  only  ask  the  states  for  it,  and  had  no 
power  to  demand  it  or  to  collect  it.  The  taxing  power  rested 
with  the  state  legislatures,  composed  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  people.  This  lack  of  power  on  the  part  of 
the  central  government  caused  great  confusion  and  distress 
both  during  and  after  the  Revolution,  because  the  states 
were  jealous  of  each  other,  and  their  interests  conflicted 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  could  not  always  be  depended 
on  to  provide  the  money  necessary  for  the  common  in- 
terests of  all.  It  soon  became  apparent  that,  if  the  new 
nation  were  to  continue  to  exist,  it  would  be  necessary  for 
the  central  government  to  have  the  power  to  tax/^r  certain 
purposes.  This  was  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  framing 
a  new  Constitution,  creating  a  Congress  which  was  to  have 
power  "  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  .  .  .  to  pay  the  debts  and 
provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States"  (Art.  I,  sec.  3,  clause  i).     But  the  Consti- 


THE    EXPENSES    OF    GOVERNMENT  23 1 

tution  was  careful  to  provide  that  "  all  bills  for  raising 
revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives," 
which  is  the  branch  of  Congress  most  closely  representa- 
tive of  the  people  (Art.  I,  sec.  7).  For  all  other  mat- 
ters not  of  national  importance  the  taxing  power  rests 
with  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  the  state  legis- 
latures and  in  the  local  legislative  bodies,  such  as  the  city 
council  and  the  board  of  county  commissioners. 

Taxation  may  be  direct  or  indirect.  Direct  taxes  are 
those  which  are  paid  directly  and  finally  by  the  person 
against  whom  the  government  assesses  them.  A  j^-^^.^^^  ^^ 
tax  on  land,  for  instance,  or  on  household  fur-  indirect 
niture  must  be  borne  by  the  person  who  owns  *^*  ^°" 
the  land  or  the  furniture.  Indirect  taxes,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  be  transferred  from  one  person  to  another.  A 
tax  on  imported  goods  may  be  levied  against  the  importer. 
»But  he  adds  the  amount  of  the  tax  to  the  price  of  the 
goods  when  he  sells  them  to  dealers.  The  dealers,  in  turn, 
add  the  amount  of  the  tax  to  the  price  which  they  receive 
from  the  people  who  buy  the  goods.  When  you  buy  silk 
that  has  been  imported  from  France,  you  indirectly  pay 
a  small  part  of  the  tax  that  was  originally  assessed  against 
the  importer.  A  tax  on  houses  and  land,  which  is  usually 
considered  a  direct  tax,  may  become  indirect  if  the  owner 
rents  his  property ;  for  he  may  make  the  rent  high  enough 
to  cover  the  tax,  which  thus  falls  on  the  renter. 

Almost  all  of  the  taxes  levied  and  collected  by  the  state 
and  local  governments  are  direct  taxes,  and  con-   ^-j.^^.^  ^axa- 
sist  chiefly  of  taxes  on  property,  which  is  divided  tion  by 
into  real  estate,  consisting  of  land  and  buildings,   and^iocai 
and    personal     property,     including     furniture,   govern- 
jewelry,   money,    and    other  forms  of    movable  ™  ^  "^ 
property.     In  the  payment  of  the  tax  on  property  it   is 


232  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

intended  that  each  taxpayer  shall  pay  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  his  property.  The  man  who  owns  twice  as 
much  property  as  another  should  pay  twice  as  much  tax. 
Anything  else  would  be  unjust. 

In  order  to  know  how  much  tax  a  citizen  must  pay,  it  is 

first  of  all  necessary  to  know  how  much  money  will  be 

needed  to  run  the  government  for  a  year.  This  is 

nary  esti-      determined  beforehand  by  the  heads  of  the  vari- 

mate  of         Q^g  departments  of  the  2:overnment,  who  make 

expenses  . 

an  estimate  of  the  amount  of  money  needed. 
A  man  usually  considers  it  good  business  management  of 
his  private  affairs  when  he  comes  out  at  the  end  of  the 
year  with  a  surplus  on  hand,  something  saved  above  his 
expenses.  Not  so  with  the  government.  It  is  a  sign  of 
good  business  management  of  the  affairs  of  government 
when  the  treasury  is  practically  empty  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  That  is  to  say,  it  is  not  considered  good  manage- 
ment to  levy  more  taxes  than  are  actually  needed.  A  good 
government  will  make  the  burden  of  taxation  just  as  light 
as  possible,  and  yet  cover  all  expenses  so  that  there  will  be 
no  deficit  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  second  thing  to  be  found  out,  in  determining  the 
amount  of  tax  each  citizen  must  pay,  is  the  value  of  all  the 
The  assess-  property  in  the  community  in  which  the  tax  is  to 
ment  be  levied.    This  is  called  assessing  the  value  of 

the  property.  The  assessment  is  made  by  officers  known 
as  assessors,  who  are  sometimes  elected  by  the  people  and 
sometimes  appointed.  There  is  an  assessor  for  each  local 
division  of  the  state,  as  for  the  county,  or  township,  or  city. 
The  assessor  and  his  assistants  visit  and  inspect  the  prop- 
erty of  each  citizen  in  the  district,  question  the  owner,  and 
assess  a  value  on  the  property.  The  sum  of  the  individual 
assessments  makes  the  total  assessment  for   the  district; 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT       233 

and  the  sum  of  the  valuations  of  all  the  districts  makes  the 
valuation  for  the  entire  state. 

^  Knowing  the  amount  of  money  to  be  expended  by  the 
government,  and  also  the  value  of  all  the  property  in  the 
community,  it  is  now  possible  to  find  the  rate  of  xhe  rate  of 
taxation  —  that  is,  the  percentage  of  his  prop-  taxation 
erty  that  each  citizen  must  pay.  This  is  done  by  dividing 
the  total  expenditures  for  the  year  by  the  total  assessment. 
Thus,  if  the  necessary  expenditures  amount  to  $100,000 
and  the  total  assessment  amounts  to  $10,000,000,  the  rate 
of  taxation  is  found  by  dividing  100,000  by  10,000,000, 
which  gives  one  hundredth,  or  one  per  cent.  Each  tax- 
payer, therefore,  would  have  to  pay  one  per  cent  of  the 
assessed  value  of  his  property.  A  property  owner  in  a 
city  must  pay  a  certain  rate  of  tax  toward  the  expenses  of 
the  city  government,  another  rate  toward  the  expenses 
of  the  state  government.  He  .pays  his  entire  tax  into  the 
treasury  of  the  city  or  of  the  county,  where  it  is  divided 
into  the  shares  belonging  to  the  city,  the  county,  and  the 
state. 

It  is  not  easy  to  secure  a  perfectly  just  tax.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  not  easy  to  estimate  the  real  worth  of  a  man's 
property,  even  when  it  can  all  be  seen.  One  EquaUza- 
man's  property  may  be  assessed  too  high,  and  t^o^ 
another  man's  too  low.  In  order  to  correct  such  inequali- 
ties there  is  often  a  board  of  equalization,  before  which 
complaints  may  be  brought,  and  by  which  corrections  are 
made.  Sometimes  the  county  commissioners  act  in  this 
capacity.  In  the  assessment  of  the  state  taxes  also  there 
may  be  great  inequalities  among  the  different  counties,  due 
to  the  varying  accuracy  of  the  different  assessors.  There 
is  usually  a  state  board  of  equalization  to  adjust  these 
differences. 


234  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Such  inequalities  in  taxation  as   those  just  mentioned 
are  Unfortunate,  but  they  are  accidental  and  can  usually  be 

corrected.  There  are  other  inequalities  due  to 
taxes^°an°in-  ^ishonest  and  unpatriotic  attempts  on  the  part 
jury  to  of   some  citizens   to  avoid   their   fair  share  of 

muiS^"       taxation.     It  is  not  easy  to  avoid  paying  taxes 

on  buildings  and  land,  because  these  forms  of 
property  cannot  be  hidden ;  but  there  are  many  forms  of 
personal  property  that  can  easily  be  kept  out  of  sight,  and 
it  is  usually  those  who  can  best  afford  to  pay  who  have  the 
most  of  this  kind  of  property.  There  seems  to  be  a  feel- 
ing among  a  great  many  people  that  it  is  justifiable  to  "  get 
ahead  of  the  government"  by  avoiding  the  taxes  for  which 
it  asks.  In  reality  the  people  who  avoid  paying  their  just 
taxes  defraud,  not  the  government,  but  their  fellow-citizens 
and  neighbors.  In  their  attempt  to  get  something  for 
nothing,  they  shift  the  burden  of  taxation  on  others,  who 
are,  in  many  cases,  less  able  to  pay  than  they.  The  smaller 
the  amount  of  property  assessed  throughout  the  commu- 
nity, the  higher  the  rate  of  taxation  that  each  citizen  has 
to  pay.  Those  who  withhold  their  property  from  assess- 
ment not  only  shirk  their  responsibility,  but  also  increase 
the  burden  of  the  other  members  of  the  community. 

State  and  local  governments  impose  other  forms  of  taxes 
than  the  general  property  tax.     In  some  states  there  is  a 
.  -  poll,  or  capitation  tax,  which  is  a  tax  on  the  per- 

forms of  son  and  not  on  the  property.  It  varies  from 
taxation  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  dollars.  In  some  states  there  is  an 
income  tax,  levied,  not  on  the  amount  of  property  a  man 
has,  but  on  the  income  he  receives.  Some  states  have  an 
inheritance  tax,  levied  on  property  received  by  inheritance. 
There  is  also  a  franchise  tax,  levied  on  corporations  for 
their   franchise    privileges.     In   addition    to   these   forms 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT       235 

of  taxation,  there  are  revenues  derived  by  state  and  lo- 
cal governments  from  various  kinds  of  licenses,  fees,  and 
special  assessments.  Men  who  conduct  certain  Licenses 
kinds  of  business  must  pay  the  government  of  ^^^  fees 
state  or  locality  a  license  fee,  as  in  the  case  of  peddlers, 
saloon  keepers,  and  pawnbrokers.  Such  licenses  are  in- 
tended, usually,  to  restrict  such  businesses  as  well  as  to 
secure  a  revenue.  In  most  cities  a  license  fee  must  be 
paid  on  all  vehicles,  including  bicycles.  When  sewers  are 
laid  or  roads  built,  they  are  often  paid  for,  in  part  at  least, 
by  special  assessments  against  the  property  owners  most 
directly  benefited.  Finally,  there  are  fines  collected  in 
the  courts,  which  are  turned  into  the  public  revenues. 
These  special  taxes  and  fees  are  often  devoted  to  special 
purposes,  as  when  the  license  fees  on  vehicles  are  used  to 
keep  up  the  roads  and  pavements,  or  when  saloon  licenses 
are  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools. 

Some  kinds  of  property  may  be  exempt  from  taxation ; 
that  is,  no  tax  is  levied  against  them.  For  example,  pub- 
lic school  buildings  and  property  are  exempt. 

^,  ,  ,  en  1  ,.       Exemptions 

Church  property,  the  property  of  colleges,  public 
hospitals,  public  buildings  such  as  courthouses,  charitable 
institutions,  and  other  forms  of  property  of  a  public  char- 
acter, used  for  the  public   benefit   and  not  for  profit,  are 
exempt  from  taxation. 

While  the  state  and  local  governments  derive  most  of 
their  revenues  from  direct  taxation,  the  national  gov- 
ernment derives  most  of  its  revenues  from  in-  indirect  tax- 
direct  taxation.     The  Constitution  permits  Con-   ^^'^°^  W  the 

1  111-  1      •      T  national 

gress  to    levy  both    direct  and    indirect    taxes.    govern- 
Direct  taxation  has  been  employed  by   the  na-  °^®"* 
tional  government  several  times  in  our  history,  but  it  is 
considered  objectionable  chiefly  for  two  reasons.     In   the 


236  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

first  place,  the  Constitution  provides  that  direct  taxes 
"shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  states  .  .  .  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  numbers."  That  is,  if  the 
national  government  should  decide  to  levy  a  tax  on  land, 
it  would  first  determine  how  much  of  a  tax  is  needed  all  to- 
gether, and  would  then  call  on  the  states  to  pay  their 
share  in  proportion  to  their  population.  A  state  having 
twice  the  population  of  another  would  also  pay  twice  the 
tax  of  the  other.  In  practice  it  has  been  found  very  diffi- 
cult to  apportion  a  tax  in  this  way,  and  do  it  justly.  An- 
other reason  why  the  national  government  prefers  to 
employ  indirect,  rather  than  direct,  taxation  is  because 
indirect  taxes  can  be  collected  so  much  more  easily  than 
direct  taxes,  and  without  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
people  so  much.  The  people  prefer  local  self-taxation, 
and  might  feel  more  antagonistic  to  a  tax  collector  rep- 
resenting the  far-away  central  authority. 

The  national  government  raises  most  of  its  money  by 
means  of  import  duties  and  excise  taxes.  Import  duties. 
Imports  and  ^s  already  explained,  are  taxes  on  imported 
excises  goods,  paid  at  first  by  the  importer,  but  finally 

by  the  people  in  all  parts  of  the  country  who  use  the  goods. 
This  form  of  taxation  is  very  little  felt  by  the  people,  and 
yet  very  large  sums  of  money  are  raised  by  means  of  it. 
The  excise  is  a  tax  levied  on  goods  manufactured  in  this 
country.  This  form  of  taxation  was  once  very  unpopular, 
because  it  seemed  a  restriction  on  the  industry  of  the 
country  by  the  national  government.  The  chief  manu- 
factures taxed  in  this  way  are  alcoholic  liquors  and  tobacco 
in  its  various  forms.  This  tax  also,  though  at  first  paid  by 
the  manufacturers,  is  distributed  among  the  people  who 
use  the  articles. 

For  the  collection  of  import  duties  all  imported  goods 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT       237 

are  required  to  pass  through  customs  houses  at  important 
cities,  mostly  on  the  borders  of  the  country,  but  coUection 
sometimes  in  the  interior,  where  the  goods  are  ^^  ^^^^^ 
inspected  by  customs  officers  and  the  tax  is  collected.  For 
the  collection  of  excise  taxes  the  country  is  divided  into 
internal  revenue  districts,  in  each  of  which  is  a  revenue 
collector  with  assistants,  who  visit  distilleries,  breweries, 
and  tobacco  factories  to  collect  the  tax. 

The  national  government,  Hke  the  states,  endeavors  usu- 
ally to  keep  the  revenue  equal  to  the  expenditures.  The 
heads  of  the  various  departments  make  their  Borrowing 
estimates  of  the  necessary  expenditures  for  the  nioney 
coming  year,  and  Congress  adjusts  the  rate  of  taxation  to 
meet  the  needs.  It  is  easily  seen  that  it  is  not  easy  to  keep 
the  expenditures  and  the  income  exactly  equal.  Some- 
times a  surplus  accumulates  in  the  treasury.  If  the  sur- 
plus continues  to  increase,  it  is  customary  to  cut  down 
the  revenue.  Sometimes,  however,  there  is  a  deficit  at 
the  end  of  the  year.  If  the  deficit  is  very  great,  it  may 
become  necessary  for  Congress  to  borrow  money  to  meet 
it.  In  time  of  war  the  expenses  of  the  government  in- 
crease with  great  rapidity.  Then  it  becomes  necessary 
to  borrow  large  sums  of  money.  Borrowing  under  such 
circumstances  is  justifiable  for  two  reasons.  First,  be- 
cause an  increase  in  the  taxes  cannot  be  secured  quickly 
enough  to  meet  the  emergency.  In  the  second  place, 
it  is  just  that  the  expense  of  a  great  war  should  be 
distributed  over  a  considerable  length  of  time,. because 
future  generations  are  affected  by  it  as  much  as  the  present. 
The  money  is  borrowed,  therefore,  and  is  paid  back  by 
taxation  during  a  long  period  of  years.  During  the  war 
with  Spain  in  1898,  large  sums  of  money  were  raised  by 
unusual  forms  of  taxation.     But  in  addition  to  this,  it  was 


238  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

necessary  to  borrow  large  sums,  which  we  are  still  paying 
off  by  means  of  taxation. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Try  to  find  out,  from  printed  reports  of  the  treasurer,  what  the 
annual  expense  of  your  city  (or  county  or  township)  is.  Make  a  list 
of  some  of  the  more  important  items  of  expense,  such  as  salaries,  build- 
ings, streets,  etc. 

2.  Find  out  what  the  rate  of  taxation  is  for  your  city  ;  for  your  county ; 
for  your  state. 

3.  How  is  the  expense  of  the  public  schools  met  in  your  community? 

4.  Is  there  a  tax  on  vehicles  in  your  community  ?  To  what  use  is 
this  money  put  ? 

5.  What  kinds  of  business  are  conducted  in  your  community  under 
license?  What  is  the  amount  of  the  saloon  license?  To  what  use  is 
the  revenue  from  this  source  put  ? 

6.  Obtain  a  tax  list  from  the  office  of  the  assessor  and  note  the  items 
listed. 

7.  How  is  the  expense  of  constructing  a  sewer  met  in  your  com- 
munity?    Of  paving  a  street? 

8.  Is  there  any  limit  to  the  amount  of  taxes  that  your  city  council 
(or  county  commissioners)  may  levy  ? 

9.  Does  your  city  charter  limit  the  amount  that  your  city  may  borrow? 
Does  the  state  constitution  limit  the  amount  that  can  be  borrowed  by 
the  state?     If  so,  why? 

10.  To  whom,  and  at  what  times,  are  the  taxes  paid  in  your  com- 
munity ? 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  <' Actual  Government,"  chapters  XXI-XXII. 
Forman, "  Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XXXV-XXXIX. 
Fiske,  "Civil  Government,"  chapter  I. 
Wilcox,  "The  American  City,"  chapters  XII,  XIII. 
Ely, "  Taxation  in  American  States  and  Cities." 


APPENDIX 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES    OF 
AMERICA 

Preamble 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the 
common  defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  bless- 
ings of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish 
this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I 

Section  I 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives. 

Section   II 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the 
electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors 
of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  [which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the 
whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a 
term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other 

239 


240        CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

persons.]  ^  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years 
after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within 
every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by 
law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for 
every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  Represen- 
tative;  [and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight, 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five.  New 
York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Mary- 
land six,  Virginia  ten.  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and 
Georgia  three.]  ^ 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State, 
the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers,  and  shall  have,  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section   III 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six 
years  ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated 
at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year ;  of  the  second  class,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the 
sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ;  and  if 
vacancies  happen  by  resignation  or  otherwise  during  the  recess  of  the 
legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  ap- 
pointments until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then 
fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  President 

1  The  clauses  in  brackets  have  been  superseded  by  Amendments  XIII  and  XIV. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES         24 1 

pro  tempore  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exer- 
cise the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice 
shall  preside:  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than 
to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office 
of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the-  United  States ;  but  the  party  con- 
victed shall,  nevertheless,  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial, 
judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section   IV 

1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators 
and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legislature 
thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such 
regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meetings  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Section    V 

1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and 
qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  con- 
stitute a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn 
from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of 
absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties,  as  each 
house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two 
thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time 
to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judg- 
ment require  secrecy,  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either 
house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present, 
be  entered  On  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other 
place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 


242        CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

Section   VI 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation 
for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury 
of  the  United  States.  They  shall,  in  all  cases  except  treason,  felony, 
and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  atten- 
dance at  the  session  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  same ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house 
they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time ;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of 
either  house  during  his  continuance,  in  office. 

Section  VII 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as 
on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States ;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he 
shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have 
originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal  and 
proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsideration  two  thirds  of 
that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with 
the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  recon- 
sidered, and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  house  it  shall  become  a 
law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined 
by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against 
the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If 
any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall 
be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress 
by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not 
be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES         243 

United  States ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved 
by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and 
limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  VIII 

The  Congress  shall  have  power : 
y  I.    To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the 
debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  United  States  ; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States  ; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes  ; 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws 
on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures  ; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States  ; 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads ; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing  for 
limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  dght  to  their  re- 
spective writings  and  discoveries  ; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations  ; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water ; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy ; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions  ; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia, 
and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appoint- 


244         CONSTITUTION   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 

ment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  miHtia  according 
to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress ; 

17.  To  exercise  exckisive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of 
Government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over 
all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals, 
dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings  ;  and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carry- 
ing into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any 
department  or  officer  thereof. 

Section  IX 

1.  [The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 
Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but 
a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten 
dollars  for  each  person.]  ^ 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  propor- 
tion to  "the  census  or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or 
revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay 
duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States;  and 
no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office, 
or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

1  A  temporary  clause  no  longer  in  force. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES         245 

Section  X 

1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation; 
grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money  ;  emit  bills  of  credit ; 
make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts ; 
pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obliga- 
tion of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  im- 
posts or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws;  and  the  net  produce  of  all 
duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be 
for  the  use  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  ;  and  all  such  laws 
shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  duty 
of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as 
will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE   II 

Section  I 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four 
years,  and  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  term, 
be  elected  as  follows  : 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators 
and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress  ; 
but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust 
or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all 
the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each ;  which  list 
they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  cf  the  Senate. 
The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall 
then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number   be  a  majority  of  the  whole 


246        CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who 
have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for 
President ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest 
on  the  list  the  said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President. 
But  in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the 
representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  pur- 
pose shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice-President. 
But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the 
Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President.]  ^ 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that 
office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and 
been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the 
Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declaring 
what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  ac- 
cordingly until  the  disability  be  removed  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not 
receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States 
or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office  he  shall  take  the 
following  oath  or  affirmation  : 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office 
of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability 
preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

1  Superseded  by  Amendment  XII. 


CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES         247 

Section  II 

1.  The  President  shall  be  Commander-in-chief  of  the  Army  and 
Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may 
require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the 
executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their 
respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and 
pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  present 
concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  tfie  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the 
United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided 
for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law ;  but  the  Congress  may  by 
law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper, 
in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  III 

He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the 
state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures 
as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  dis- 
agreement between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  re- 
ceive ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers ;  he  shall  take  care  that 
the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of 
the  United  States. 

Section  IV 

The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for  and  conviction 
of  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 


248         CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

ARTICLE   III 
Section   I 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Su- 
preme Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time 
to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and 
inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall, 
at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  which  shall 
not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Section  II 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority ;  to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls ;  to 
all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction ;  to  controversies  to 
which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party ;  to  controversies  between  two 
or  more  States ;  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State ;  be- 
tween citizens  of  different  States ;  between  citizens  of  the  same  State 
claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State, 
or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases,  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned, 
the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and 
fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress 
shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be 
by  jury ;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes 
shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State, 
the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law 
have  directed. 

Section  III 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  com- 
fort. No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony 
of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or 
forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attained. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES         249 

ARTICLE  IV 

Section  1 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts, 
records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Con- 
gress may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts, 
records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  elfect  thereof. 

Sectio7i  II 

1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall, 
on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled, 
be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the 
crime. 

3.  [No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  reg- 
ulation therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be 
delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may 
be  due.]  ^ 

Section  III 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union  ; 
but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
any  other  State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or 
more  States  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures 
of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  need- 
ful rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  be- 
longing to  the  United  States  ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall 
be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States  or  of 
any  particular  State. 

Section  IV 
The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a 
republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against 
invasion,  and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when 
the  legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

1  Superseded  by  Amendment  XIII. 


250         CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

ARTICLE    V 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall 
call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which  in  either  case  shall 
be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when 
ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States, 
or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other 
mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress,  provided 
that  [no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and 
fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article  ;  and  that]  ^  no 
State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the 
Senate. 

ARTICLE   VI 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall 
be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land  ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby, 
anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  not- 
withstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial 
officers  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be 
bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution  ;  but  no  reli- 
gious test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public 
trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE   VII 
The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratify- 
ing the  same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present, 
the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 

1  Temporary  in  its  nature. 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED    STATES         25 1 

thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  Independ- 
ence of  the   United   States  of  America  the  twelfth.     In  witness 
wdiereof,  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 
George  Washington,  President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 
New  Hampshire  —  John  Langdon,  Nicholas  Oilman. 
Massachusetts  —  Nathaniel  Gorham,  Rufus  King. 
Connecticut  —  William  Samuel  Johnson,  Roger  Sherman. 
New  York  —  Alexander  Hamilton. 
New  Jersey  —  William  Livingston,  David  Brearley,  William  Paterson, 

Jonathan  Dayton. 
Pennsylvania  —  Benjamin  Franklin,  Thomas  Mifflin,  Robert  Morris, 

George  Clymer,  Thomas  Fitzsimons,  Jared  Ingersoll,  James  Wilson, 

Gouverneur  Morris. 
Delaware  —  George   Read,  Gunning   Bedford,  Jr.,  John  Dickinson, 

Richard  Bassett,  Jacob  Broom. 
Maryland  —  James  McHenry,  Daniel  of  St.  Thomas  Jenifer,  Daniel 

Carroll. 
Virginia  —  John  Blair,  James  Madison,  Jr. 
North  Carolina  —  William  Blount,  Richard  Dobbs  Spaight,  Hugh 

Williamson. 
South   Carolina  —  John    Rutledge,   Charles   Cotesworth    Pinckney, 

Charles  Pinckney,  Pierce  Butler. 
Georgia  —  William  Few,  Abraham  Baldwin. 

Attest :  William  Jackson,  Secretary. 

ARTICLES 

in  addition  to  and  amendment  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  proposed  by  Congress  and  ratified  by  the  Legisla- 
tures of  the  several  States,  pursuant  to  the  Fifth  Article  of  the  Consti- 
tution. ^ 
ARTICLE  I 
Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion, 
or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of 
speech  or  of  the  press  ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble, 
and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE   II 
A  well-regulated   militia    being  necessary  to   the  security  of  a  free 
State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and   bear  arms  shall  not   be 
infringed. 


252        CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

ARTICLE   III 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE   IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  vio- 
lated, and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported 
by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be 
searched  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE   V 

No  persons  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  infa- 
mous crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  ex- 
cept in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when 
in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  person 
be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or 
limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness 
against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  with- 
out just  compensation. 

ARTICLE   VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have 
been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature 
and  cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against 
him,  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor, 
and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE   VII 
In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE   VIII 
Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES         253 

ARTICLE    IX 
The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X 
The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively 
or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE   XI 
The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against 
one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or 
subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII 
I.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall 
not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves ;  they  shall 
name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make 
distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ;  which 
lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the 
Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates  and  the  votes 
shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have  such 
majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceed- 
ing three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But 
in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  rep- 
resentation from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose 
shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And 
if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of 
March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President, 


254        CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional    disability  of  the 
President, 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-President 
shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall  choose  the 
Vice-President ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of 
the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to 
the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII 

Section  i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a 
punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted, 
shall  exist  within  the  United  States  or  any  place  subject  to  their 
jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV 

Section  i.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any 
law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States ;  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law  ;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within 
its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  num- 
ber of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when 
the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President 
and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress, 
the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the 
legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such 
State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion,  or  other 
crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  pro- 
portion which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole 
number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 


CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES        255 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Con- 
gress, or  elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil 
or  military,  under  the  United  States  or  under  any  State,  who,  having 
previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of 
the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legislature,  or  as  an 
executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But 
Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each  house,  remove  such  dis- 
ability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States, 
authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be 
questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume 
or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation 
of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held 
illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE   XV 

Section  i  .  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not 
be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of 
x'ace,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 


256 


APPENDIX 


TABLE    SHOWING    NUMBER    OF    HOMES    OWNED    AND 
NUMBER  OF  HOMES  RENTED  IN  THE  CITIES  OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES  HAVING  A  POPU- 
LATION   OF    100,000  OR   OVER 

Adapted  from  a  Table  in  the  Census  Report  for  1900 


Cities 


Allegheny,  Pa.  . 
Baltimore,  Md.  . 
Boston,  Mass.    . 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.    . 
Chicago,  111. 
Cincinnati,  O.    . 
Cleveland,  6.     . 
Columbus,  O.     . 
Denver,  Col. 
Detroit,  Mich.    . 
Fall  River,  Mass. 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Jersey  City,  N.J. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Louisville,  Ky.  . 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Minneapolis,  Minn 
Newark,  N.  J.    . 
New  Haven,  Conn 
New  Orleans,  La. 
New  York  City 
Omaha,  Neb.     . 


Homes  Owned 


6,490 
26,989 
20,696 
23,168 

86,435 
14,891 

29.139 
8,093 
8,269 

22,540 

3,659 
12,729 

8,536 

8,443 
10,049 

11,363 

3.665 

20,955 

11,473 
11,041 

6,062 
12,886 
85,169 

5-341 


Homes  Rented 


18,983 
69,761 
89,083 
47.298 
258,582 
56,384 
48,844 
17,822 
21,215 
35.178 
16,711 
25,004 
34,060 
26,466 

12,745 
31,640 

15,851 
37,466 
28,522 
41,027 

16,722 

45,129 

614,474 

I3'94i 


Per-  Cent 
Owned 


25 

28 

19 

33 
25 
21 

37 
31 

28 

39 

18 

33 

20 

24 
44 
26 
18 
36 
28 
21 
26 
22 
12 
27 


APPENDIX 


257 


Cities 

Homes  Owned 

Homes  Rented 

Per  Cent 
Owned 

Paterson,  N.  J.       .     . 
Philadelphia,  Pa.    .     . 
Pittsburg,  Pa.     .     . 
Providence,  R.  I.    .     . 
Rochester,  N.  Y.     . 

5,230 

55,528 

.    16,582 

7,895 
12,469 

4,620 
26,804 

8,652 
15774 

7436 

9,238 

11,962 

12,998 

5,913 

17,285 
196,124 

44,364 
29,696 
20,481 
11,080 
90,983 
20,266 
49,656 
12,209 

15,439 
15,851 

40,753 
17,875 

23 

22 

27 
21 

37 
29 
23 
30 
24 
37 
37 
43 
24 
25 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 
St.  Louis,  Mo.    .     . 
St.  Paul,  Minn. 
San  Francisco,  Cal.     . 
Scranton,  Pa.     .     . 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Toledo,  0 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Worcester,  Mass.    . 

258 


APPENDIX 


IMMIGRATION   TABLES  i 

Immigration  by  Decades,  1821  to  1900 


1821  to  1830 

1831  to   1840 

1841  to  1850 

1851  to  i860 

I 861  to  1870 


.  143,439 
•  599,125 
1,713,251 
2,598,214 
2,314,824 


1871  to  1880     .  .     .     2,812,191 

1 88 1  to  1890     .  .     .     5,246,613 

1 891  to  1900     .  .     .     3,687,564 

1901   to  1905  (5  years)  3,833,076 


Number    and    Per    Cent    of    Immigrants    from    Certain    Countries    for    the 
Period   1 82 1  to  1902,  and  for  1903 


Country 

1821  to  IQ02                1 

1Q03 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Number 

Per  Cent 

Austria-Hungary 
England,  Wales       . 
Germany    .... 

Ireland 

Italy 

Norway,  Sweden 
Russia,  Poland    .     . 

1,316,914 

2739,937 
5,098,005 
3,944,269 
1,358,597 
1,334,931 
1,106,362 

6.5 

13-4 
24.9 

193 
6.7 
6.6 

5-4 

206,011 
26,219 
40,086 
35,300 

230,622 
70,489 

136,093 

24.0 

3-0 
4-7 
4.1 

26.9 
8.2 

15.9 

FOREIGN    POPULATION    IN    FOUR   CITIES 


Austria- Hungary,   Italy, 
Poland,  and  Russia 

Great  Britain,  France, 
Germany,  and  Scandinavia 

Cities 

Per  Cent  of 
Total    Popula- 
tion 

Per  Cent  oj 
Slum    Popula- 
tion 

Per  Cent  of 
Total    Popula- 
tion 

Per  Cent  of 
Slum    Popula- 
tion 

New  York       .     . 

9-45 

51.11 

3073 

8.64 

Chicago      .     .     . 

6.41 

44.44 

30.70 

10  64 

Philadelphia  .     . 

1.95 

50.28 

22.95 

8.44 

Baltimore  .     .     . 

1.97 

12.72 

1352 

27.29 

1  Tables  taken  from  Appendix  of  Hall's  Immigration. 


INDEX 


Accidents,  prevention  of,  74. 
Administrative,  departments,  202,  205, 

216;    duties  of  local  governments, 

165. 
Advertisements,  142,  143. 
Aliens,  38,  39,  169. 
Amendment  of  the  constitution,  208. 
Americans,  the  making  of,  34-40. 
Andre,  17. 
Appointment  of  officers,  174,  183,  184, 

204,  214,  215,  216,  223,  224,  225. 
Apportionment,  220. 
Architecture,  145. 
Army,  the,  76,  77. 
Art,  134;   galleries,  134. 
Articles  of  Confederation,  2i8,  222. 
Assemblage,  freedom  of,  128,  129. 
Assessment,  232. 
Assessments,  special,  235. 
Assessors,  232. 
Asylums,  154. 
Australian  system  of  election,  185. 

Beautiful  surroundings  of  factories,  88. 

Beauty,  desire  for,  16,  132-148;  in- 
creasing, 145,  146 ;  in  the  pioneer 
family,  22;  natural,  132,  133;  in 
the  home,  134-136  ;   in  the  school, 

137- 

Berkeley,  Governor,  118. 
Bill,  210;   of  rights,  209. 
Billboards,  142,  143. 
Birds,  killing  of,  133. 
Borrowing  money,  237. 
Boss,  182,  212. 
Boston,  10,  113,  114,  143. 


Boulevards,  143,  144. 

Builders  of  our  nation,  87. 

Building,  ordinances,  70  ;    inspectors, 

70  ;   department,  203. 
Buildings,  faulty  construction  of,  69, 
Business  life  of  the  community,  82-91 ; 

regulation  of,  73,  74,  92-97. 
Business  man,  responsibility  of  the,  88. 
By-laws,  190. 
By-products,  99,  100. 

Campaign,  political,  172. 

Canals,  108,  109. 

Capitation  tax,  234. 

Caucus,  171,  185. 

Charity,  unorganized,  155;  organiza- 
tion, 156;   bureaus,  156. 

Charters,  city,  199  ;  special,  199  ;  gen- 
eral, 199 ;  model,  200 ;  colonial, 
208. 

Checks  and  balances,  167. 

Chicago,  12,  69,  70,  77,  114,  198,  199  ; 
drainage  canal,  56,  62. 

Children,  of  foreigners,  37,  40  ;  labor 
of,  93  ;  and  civic  beauty,  135,  136; 
school,  125,  126. 

Chinese,  exclusion  of,  37,  38. 

Church,  the,  3,4,  5,  18,  149,  150,  155  ; 
relation  between  government  and, 
150,  151. 

Churches,  architecture  of,  134. 

Cincinnati,  69. 

Cities,  geographical  conditions  of 
growth,  10-12;  home  life  in, 
28-31;  foreigners  in,  36 ;  subdivi- 
sions of,  47  ;   exercise  right  of  emi- 


259 


26o 


INDEX 


nent  domain,  49 ;  health  in,  55,  56, 
59,  60,  62 ;  fire  protection  in,  68, 
69 ;  police  in,  72  ;  street  lighting 
in,  73  ;  transportation  in,  1 1  i-i  14  ; 
education  in,  122,  128;   beauty  in, 

U3>  i35»  i37»  138,  139,  142,  143, 
145;  charity  in,  154,  156;  primary 
districts  of,  171  ;  merit  system  in, 
184,  205;  growth  of,  198;  prob- 
lems of,  198,  199;  self-government 
in,  199;  relation  of,  to  the  state, 
199  ;  form  of  government  in,  201  ; 
cost  of  government  in,  228. 

Citizens,  legal,  38. 

Citizenship,  9  ;  the  family  a  school  of, 
26  ;  necessity  for  instruction  in,  40  ; 
in  business,  82-90;  good,  61,  70, 
86,  87,  88,  90,  98,  126,  136,  175  ; 
and  the  school,  124-128;  influence 
of  beautiful  surroundings  on,  146  ; 
influence  of  religion  on,  152. 

City  community,  the,  7,  8  ;  charters, 
164,  199  ;  council,  201  ;  govern- 
ment of  the,  198-207  ;  and  national 
politics,  204,  205. 

Civic  beauty,  influence  on  citizenship, 
146. 

Civic  Improvement  Associations,  146. 

Civil  service,  183;  of  the  United 
States,  224,  225;  reform  in  cities, 
205. 

Civil  Service  Commission,  184. 

Cleanliness,  58,  59. 

Cleveland,  30,  31  (no^e},  135,  137. 

Climate,  11. 

Coast  survey,  108. 

Colonial  charters,  208. 

Colonies,  103,  119,  149,  150,  192,  193, 
230. 

Colonists,  3,  92,  118,  149,  162,  167, 
189,  190,  191,  218,  229. 

Colonize,  44. 

Colony,  in  the  West,  the,  3;  Virginia, 
12,  118,  191 ;  Massachusetts  Bay, 
34. 


Columbus,  17. 

Commerce,  foreign  and  interstate,  94, 

95- 

Commerce  and  Labor,  Department  of, 
96. 

Committees,  party,  173;  legislative, 
210,  222. 

Communication,  2,  3,  103,  114. 

Communities,  large  and  small,  7; 
union  of  communities,  7,  8;  growth 
of,  8;   permanence  of,  43. 

Community,  the  nature  of  a,  7-9;  defi- 
nition, 7;  the  site  of  a,  i,  2,  10-13; 
membership  in  a,  8. 

Companionship,  desire  for,  16;  in  the 
pioneer  family,  23. 

Compulsory  education,  126. 

Confederation,  the,  94;  government 
of,  218. 

Confidence,  necessity  for,  89;  respon- 
sibility of  citizens  for,  89. 

Congress,  219-222;  powers  over  busi- 
ness relations,  94-96;  power  to  tax, 
230,  231. 

Congressional  districts,  220. 

Connecticut,  education  in,  1 19. 

Constables,  72,  75. 

Constitutional  convention,  162,  218. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,  the, 

19,  38,  49.  71.  72,  92,  93.  94,  115. 
129,  151,  159,  160,  162,  163,  174, 
179,  209,  210,  213,  219,  223,  225, 
226,  230,  235,  236,  239;  interpre- 
tation of,  164. 

Constitutions,  state,  93,  208,  210,  21 1. 

Consular  system,  95. 

Convention,  constitutional,  162,  218. 

Conventions,  nominating,  171,  172. 

Corporations,  regulation  of,  95 ;  domi- 
nation of,  183. 

County,  121;  origin  of,  191;  why 
adopted  in  Virginia,  191 ;  govern- 
ment of,  191,  192,  195,  196;  in  the 
South,  193;   in  the  West,  195. 

County  court,  191. 


INDEX 


261 


County  supervisors,  193. 

Courts,  juvenile,  158;  state,  212-214; 
justices',  213;  district,  213;  circuit, 
213;  police,  213;  criminal,  213; 
county,  214;  probate,  214;  chan- 
cery, 214;  supreme,  214;  federal, 
225-226. 

Credit,  89. 

Crime,  157;  prevention  of,  158;  state 
control  of,  158;    national  control  of, 

159- 

Criminals,  29,  153,  156-160;  reforma- 
tion of,  157. 

Customs  houses,  237. 

Defectives,  153,  154. 

Defects  in  self-government,  1 78-188. 

Delinquents,  153,  156-160. 

Democratic,  168. 

Dependence  of  the  citizen  on  the 
community,  S2-86. 

Dependents,  153,  154-156. 

Desires  of  men,  the,  15-19;  combina- 
tions of,  17;  conflict  of,  18,  161; 
provided  for  in  the  pioneer  family, 
23;  provided  for  by  the  community, 
54. 

Distribution  of  powers,  219;  in  the 
protection  of  property  and  life,  78, 
79;  in  the  protection  of  health,  63; 
in  business  matters,  92,  93;  in  edu- 
cation, 120. 

Division  of  labor,  83-86. 

Division  of  powers,  162-165,  ^^^' 

Domain,    eminent,  49;    the  national, 

44.  45- 
Domestic  science,  99. 
Duties  of  citizenship,  178. 

Education,  3,  1 18-131 ;  in  the  pioneer 
family,  22;  in  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory, 120;  and  government,  119, 
120;  in  hands  of  state  and  local 
governments,  120;  state  control  of, 
122;   department  of,  203;   work  of 


the  national  government  in,  123, 
124;  United  States  Commissiuner 
of,  124;  cost  of,  124;  and  citizen- 
ship, 124-128;   a  duty,  126. 

Election,  indirect,  174. 

Elections,  167,  169,  1 71-174;  fre- 
quency of,  173. 

Electoral  system,  223. 

Electors,  174. 

Electric  transportation,  113,  1 14. 

Eminent  domain,  right  of,  49. 

Employee,  responsibility  of  the,  88; 
and  employer,  85,  86. 

Employer,  responsibility  of  the,  88. 

Equalization,  board  of,  233. 

Erie  Canal,  108,  109. 

Estimates,  board  of,  201,  204. 

Exchange  of  goods,  21. 

Excises,  236. 

Executive  branch  of  government,  165  ; 
of  cities,  201,,  202,  203  ;  state,  214- 
216;   national,  222-225. 

Exemptions,  235. 

Eamilies,  I,  2. 

Family,  the,  20-24;  importance  of, 
20 ;  service  of,  to  its  members, 
20 ;  the  pioneer,  20-23  >  relieved 
by  the  community,  23  ;  responsi- 
bility of,  24 ;  services  rendered  to 
the  community  by,  26-31  ;  a  train- 
ing school  for  citizens,  26 ;  influence 
of,  in  uniting  people  with  the  land, 
44  ;  a  producer  of  wealth,  83  ;  and 
education,  119. 

Federal  nation,  163;  government, 
163. 

Fees,  235. 

Fire,  loss  from,  67  ;  early  methods  of 
fighting,  67,  68. 

Fire  department,  modern  organization 
of,  6S,  69  ;  efficiency  of,  69 ; 
waste  in,  loi  ;  in  city  government, 
203. 

Fire  insurance,  70,  71. 


262 


INDEX 


Foreign  population,  34-40 ;  influence 

of,  36. 
Forest  reservations,  47. 
Forestry  bureaus,  133. 
PVanchises,  50,  202  ;   wastefully  given, 

loi  ;   for  use  of  streets,  112;   abuse 

of,  112. 
Franchise  tax,  234. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  67,  68,  72,  73. 

Gardens,  home  and  school,  135,  136. 

Geographical  conditions,  1,2;  impor- 
tance of,  10;  of  Virginia,  12,  191  ; 
of  the  growth  of  the  nation,  13; 
conquest  of,  13,  21, 

Geography,  influence  of,  on  the  divi- 
sion of  labor,  84  ;  on  roads,  104  ; 
on  education,  118. 

Government,  purpose  of,  5,"  18,  19,  96, 
161  ;  local,  48,  55,  56,  59,  60,  63, 
72,  73»  78,  93.    ioi»   105.  i"»  "2, 

114,  120,  133,  146,  154,  155,  162, 
164,    165,    166,   189-197,    198-207, 

228,  229,  231,  234;  state,  62,  63, 
75.  78,  93,  loi,  106,  107,  108,  120, 
122,  146,  151,  154,  158,  162,  163, 
164,  165,  166,   168,  208-217,    228, 

229,  230,  231,  234;  national,  37, 
38,  39,  40,  44,  45,  47,  49,  63,  76,  78, 
79.  93>  94-96,  10 1,   106,  108,   no, 

115,  123,  F46,  159,  162,  163,  164, 
166,  218-227,  228,  229,  230,  235, 
236,  237  ;  in  the  home,  23,  24,  29, 
30 ;  waste  in,  100,  loi  ;  threefold 
character  of,  162;  federal,  163; 
republican  form  of,  209 ;  of  the 
Confederation,  218 ;  expense  of, 
228-238. 

Government  survey,  45,  46, 
Governor,  214,  215. 
Great  Lakes,  108,  109. 

Harmony,  means  to  secure,  18. 
Health,    3 ;     geographical   conditions 
of,  II  ;   desire  for  life  and,  15;   in 


tenements,  29,  30  ;  protection  of, 
54-64 ;  protected  by  government, 
55,  56  ;  officers,  56  ;  board  of,  56  ; 
and  the  national  government,  63  ; 
in  factories  and  mines,  93  ;  depart- 
ment, 203. 

Home,  2  ;  building  a,  21  ;  owning  of 
a,  27  ;  creates  interest  in  the  com- 
munity, 28  ;   beauty  in  the,  134-136. 

Home    Gardening    Association,    136, 

137- 
Homes,  a  city  of,  2,  20,  28  ;   of  work- 

ingmen,    88 ;    number   owned   and 

rented,  appendix. 
Homestead  Act,  44. 
Hospitals,  60  ;   for  insane,  154. 

Immigrants,  number,  34 ;  distribu- 
tion, 35  ;  in  cities,  36 ;  become 
Americans,  36,  37,  40  ;  health  in- 
spection of,  63. 

Immigration,  34-40 ;  tables,  appendix. 

Impeachment,  221. 

Import  duties,  231,  236,  237. 

Income  tax,  234. 

Indeterminate  sentence,  158. 

Indianapolis,  ii,  57,  58,  107. 

Indians,  17,  43. 

Industrial  organization,  84. 

Inheritance  tax,  234. 

Initiative  and  referendum,  211. 

Interests,  common,  2,  3. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 
no. 

Interurban  electric  roads,  no. 

Investment,  100. 

Iroquois  theater  fire,  70. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  184. 

Judges,  appointment  of,  214;   federal, 

225. 
Judicial   branch  of  government,   165; 

in  cities,  201;   state,  212;   national, 

225,  226;   purpose  of  county,  196; 

districts,  213. 


INDEX 


263 


Jury   service,  duty  of,   179;    trial  by, 

213  (and  see  Trial). 
Justices  of  the  peace,  191,  213. 
Juvenile  courts,  158. 

Knowledge,  desire  for,  16,  118-131. 

Labor  unions,  86,  93. 

Land,  union  of  people  with,  3,  43-51; 

political  divisions  of,  51. 
Law,  in  the  pioneer  family,  23. 
Law  breakers,  protection  against,  71. 
Lawrenceburg,  77,  78,  79. 
Laws,     common,    7;     established    by 

government,    18;     tenement-house, 

31- 

Legislative  branch  of  government, 
165;  in  cities,  201;  state,  209; 
national,  219-222. 

Legislature,  state,  209-212. 

Levees,  78. 

Libraries,  128. 

Library,  Congressional,  128. 

Licenses,  235. 

Lieutenant  governor,  210,  215. 

Life,  desire  for,  15;  the  well-rounded, 
17;   protection  of-  67-81. 

Life-saving  service,  78. 

Lighthouses,  78. 

Liquor  traffic,  74. 

Livingstone,  16. 

Lobbying,  212. 

Local  government,  see  Government. 

Louisville,  1 1. 

Lynching,  71,  72, 

Machine,  party,  182. 
Majority,  rule  of,  182. 
Massachusetts   Bay  Colony,  34;    edu- 
cation in,  118,  119. 
Mayor,  the,  201,  202;   powers  of,  204. 
Merit  system,  184,  225;   in  cities,  205. 
Militia,  75,  76. 
Minneapolis,  ii. 
Mints,  establishment  of,  95. 


Money,  21 ;    coinage  of,  95. 

Mulberry  Bend,  144. 

Municipal  ownership,  69,  73,  1 14. 

Nansen,  16. 

Nation,  government  of  the,  218-227; 
see  also  Government. 

National  Good  Roads  Association,  105. 

National  government,  see  Govern- 
ment. 

Nationality,  the  bond  of,  34. 

National  Municipal  League,  200. 

Naturalization,  38. 

Navy,  the,  76,  77. 

New  England,  schools  in,  119,  162. 

New  Orleans,  63. 

Newspaper,  1 15. 

New  York  City,  68,  72,  78,  113,  114, 
144,  198. 

Niagara  Falls,  133. 

Noise,  138. 

Nominations,  169,  170;   direct,  222. 

Northwest  Territory,  151. 

Obedience,  175. 

Occupations,   of    the    pioneer  family, 

22;   transferred  to  the  community, 

23,  24. 
Office,  duty  of  taking,  178. 
Official  parents,  158. 
Oklahoma,  120. 
Ordinance  of  1787,  120,  151. 

Panama  Canal,  ,109. 

Pardons,  board  of,  215, 

Parish,  189. 

Parks,  30,  59,  60,  133,  143,  144. 

Parties,    political,   169;    necessity  for, 

181 ;   and  city  government,  264. 
Party,   organization,  173,   182;   spirit, 

dangers  of,  181. 
Patriotism,  87,  90,  179. 
Pavements,  138. 
Pawn  shops,  74. 
Penn,  William,  175. 


264 


INDEX 


Permanence,  a  necessity  in  community 

life,  43. 
Philadelphia,  1 1,  67,68,  73,  198. 
Pioneer  life,  4;   family,  20-23. 
Piracy,  159. 
Pittsburg,  10. 
Playgrounds,  30,  60, 
Plymouth  colony,  34. 
Poles  and  wires,  142. 
Police,  72,  73,  75;   efficiency  of,  73; 

department,  72,  73,  203;  courts,  73. 
Police  power,  the,  50. 
Political  divisions,  51. 
Poll  tax,  234. 
Poor  relief,  155. 
Postal  service,  95,  114,  115. 
Poverty,  155. 

Preamble  of  the  Constitution,  19,  162. 
President,  naturalized  citizens  may  not 

hold  office  of,  38, 172,  173,  174,  221, 

223-225;   authority  over  militia,  75, 

76;      commander-in-chief     of     the 

army,  77. 
President  of  the  senate,  210. 
Press,  freedom  of  the,  128,  129. 
Primaries,  171,  180;   reform  of,  185. 
^        Primary  districts,  171. 
Probation  officers,  158. 
Property,  protection  of,  67,  81. 
Property  »ghts,  92. 
Protection,  in  the  pioneer  family,  22; 

of    life    and    property,  67-81;     of 

health,  54-64. 
Public  opinion,  212. 
Punishment,  157. 
Pure-food  laws,  63. 
Puritans,  150,  190. 

Quarantine,  60. 
Quebec,  11. 

Railroads,  44,  89,  109,  1 10;  state  and 
national  aid  of,  109,  no;  national 
control  of,  no;  government  owner- 
ship of,  no,  114. 

Reclamation  of  arid  lands,  47. 


Reclamation  service,  47. 

Referendum,  21 1. 

Reform,  responsibility  of  the  citizen 
for,  1 85. 

Religion,  3;  desire  for,  16,  149-152; 
in  the  pioneer  family,  22,  23;  influ- 
ence in  history,  149. 

Religious  intolerance  in  the  colonies, 
150;  qualifications  for  the  suffrage, 
151 ;   liberty  guaranteed,  152. 

Representation  in  Congress,  219,  220. 

Representative  government,  162. 

Representatives,  chosen  from  local 
districts,  167;  House  of,  210,  220, 
222;   election  of,  220. 

Resources,  natural,  ii. 

Responsibility,  the  sense  of  personal, 
175;  of  the  citizen,  82,  86-90,  loi, 
138,  178,  185,  234;  of  the  state  ex- 
ecutive, 216;   of  the  President,  223. 

Revenue  districts,  237. 

Revision  of  constitutions,  208,  209. 

Revolution,  the,  229. 

Revolutionary  War,  72,  76,  92,  94. 

Rings,  political,  182. 

Rivers,  as  highways,  107;  improve- 
ment of,  108. 

Road,  the  national,  106. 

Roads,  lOO;  importance  of,  104;  con- 
struction and  management,  104, 
105 ;  state  control  over,  93,  106, 
107  ;  national  aid  for  construction 
of,  106. 

Rural  communities,  1 89-197. 

Russia,  129. 

St.  Louis,  10,  69. 

San  Francisco,  10,  50,  71,  77. 

Saving,  waste  and,  98-102. 

School,  the  public,  18;  influence  on 
immigrants,  40 ;  domestic  science 
in,  99;  lands,  120;  trustees,  120, 
121;  boards,  122,  204;  a  commu- 
nity, 125,  126;  and  civic  beauty 
13^.  137- 


INDEX 


265 


Schools,  118-131;  city,  122;  consoli- 
dated, 121,  122;  rural,  120-122; 
naval,  124;  Indian,  124;  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  124;  high,  127, 
128;  special,  127;  private,  128; 
parochial,  128;  state,  128,  154; 
reform,  158;  medical  inspection 
in,  61. 

Selectmen,  190. 

Self-government,  92,  93,  162;  defects 
in,  178-188;  responsibility  of  the 
citizen  for,  178. 

Senate,  state,  210;  United  States,  220, 
221  ;   executive  duties  of,  221. 

Senators,  election  of,  174,  221,  222; 
indirect  election  proposed,  220. 

Separation  of  povi^ers,  165  ;  in  cities, 
203;  in  the  state  government,  209, 
in  the  national  government,  219. 

Settlement  in  the  West,  the,  1-5,  7, 
10,  15,  16,  20,  28,  43,  55,  56,  103, 
149. 

Sewers,  56-58. 

Sheriff,  72,  75,  192,  196. 

Site  of  a  community,  the,  I,  2,  10-13. 

Slums,  29-31. 

Smoke,  prevention  of,  144,  145. 

Smoke  inspectors,  59. 

Social  life,  in  the  pioneer  family,  23. 

Spain,  wai  w  .th,  237. 

Spartans,  154. 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, 210,  222. 

Speech,  freedom  of,  128,  129. 

Spoils  system,  184  ;  in  city  govern- 
ment, 204. 

State,  the,  49,  51,  62,  107,  120,  151, 
167,  168;   see  Government. 

State  Universities,  122,  123. 

Streams,  pollution  of,  133;  beauty 
preserved,  133. 

Street,  importance  of  the,  ill,  man- 
agement of.  III,  112;  cleaning, 
59  ;  department,  203  ;  cleaning 
department,  203. 


Streets,  lighting  of,  73  ;   blocking  of 

112;    franchises    for    use    of,    112; 

beauty  of,  137-140;   littering,  139; 

and  school  children,  139,  140. 
Suffrage,  the,  168. 
Superintendent,    of    schools,    county, 

121;   city,  122;   state,  123. 
Survey,  government,  45,  46. 

Tax,  road,  104. 

Taxation,  228-23S;  right  of  self-,  230; 
under  the  Confederation,  230;  by 
federal  government,  230;  by  state 
and  local  governments,  231-235; 
direct  and  indirect  231-235;  rate 
of,  233;   exemption  from,  151. 

Taxes,  94,  229-237;  duty  of  paying, 
179;   evasion  of,  234. 

Telegraph,  114,  115. 

Telephone,  114,  115. 

Tenements,  28-31.* 

Terms  of  office,  1 73. 

Town  meeting,  the,  128,  162,  189,  190; 
in  the  Northwest,  193;   influence  of, 

193- 
Town  officers,  190. 
Township,   121;    origin  of,   189;   why 

adopted    in    New    England,     190; 

government  of,  189,   190,  193,  195, 

196  ;   in  the  West,  195. 
Transportation,  103-117;    in  the  col. 

onies,  103;   in  cities,  30,  111-114. 
Treason,  159. 

Treaties,  210;   crime  against,  159. 
Tree  commissioners,  144. 
Trees,  140;   mutilation  of,  141,  142. 
Trial  by  jury,  right  of,  71,  72,  160. 
Turnpikes,  106. 

Vestry,  189. 

Veto,   201  ;    power  of  governor,   210, 

215;   power  of  President,  224. 
Vice-President,  38,  172,  173,  174,  223. 
Vigilance  committees,  71,  72. 
Violation  of  the  law,  74,  75,  139. 


266 


INDEX 


Virginia,  geographical  conditions  of, 
12;  government  in,  191;  education 
in,  118. 

Voting,  duty  of,  179;   machines,  185. 

Washington,  President,  169;  his 
Farewell  Address,  181. 

Waste  and  saving,  98-102 ;  in  the 
household,  98,  99;  in  business,  99, 
loo;   in  government,  100,  loi. 


Water  supply,  56-58,  69, 

Waterworks,  municipal  ownership  of, 
69. 

Wealth,  3;  desire  for,  15,  82;  mean- 
ing of,  82. 

Women  as  managers  of  the  house- 
hold, 98,  99. 

Yellowstone  Park,  133. 
Yosemite,  the,  133. 


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